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TYPE OF FALLACIES

What are the common fallacies found in argument?

By:
Syed Noman Ali
Philosopher
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Questionable Cause

• Bad luck result from breaking mirror.

• Black cat on the way.
• Fortune in life depend on planet.
• Smoking depend on emotional difficulties.
• Shyness and lack of confidence.
• Failure in career and personal problem.
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. Argument seems to
be correct but contain mistakes in reason

The word “fallacy” may derive from the Latin word fallere meaning, “to
deceive, to trip, to lead into error or to trick.” The word may also derive
from the Greek phelos, meaning “deceitful.”

Examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers,

advertisements, and other media sources.

What is Fallacy?
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Definitions
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Type of Fallacies

1. Fallacy of Presumptions
2. Fallacy of Relevance
3. Fallacy of Defective induction
4. Fallacy of Ambiguity
1. Fallacies of Presumption
In fallacies of presumption, too much is assumed in the premises. The
inference to the conclusion depends mistakenly on these unwarranted
assumptions:
• P1: Complex question/Presupposition
• P2: Begging the question/Circular argument
P3: False dichotomy/Dilemma/Either or
 2. Fallacies of Relevance
In these fallacies, the premises of the argument are simply not relevant to
the conclusion. They may deceive:

R4:The appeal to emotion: force, pity, fear,flatter

R5: The appeal to the people/Bandwagon
R6: Personal attack/Ad hominem
R7: Accident/Over generalized/Over simplified.
R8: Straw man/Poision the well
R9: Missing the point (irrelevant conclusion)
R10: Red herring/Distraction
3. Fallacies of Defective induction
Fallacies of defective induction occur when the mistake arises from the fact
that the premises of the argument, although relevant to the conclusion,
are so weak and ineffective that relying on them is a blunder:

D11: Appeal to inappropriate authority

D12: Argument from Ignorance/Ignorance of fact
D13: Hasty generalization
D14: False cause
D15: False analogy
D16: Slippery slope
 4. Fallacies of Ambiguity
The incorrect reasoning in fallacies of ambiguity arises from the equivocal
use of words or phrases. Some word or phrase in one part of the argument
has a meaning different from that of the same word or phrase in another part
of the argument:

• A17: Equivocation
• A18: Amphiboly
• A19: Accent
• A 20: Composition
A 21: Division
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Do you find mistakes in argument ?

1-Everybody said that you are liar means you are.
2-The most reckless drivers on the road today are women.
3-I don’t watch horror movies; I saw once and didn’t like it.
4-You are either with us or against us.
5-Everyone is late so I am too
6-Everyone has signed this so you should sign it too.
7-I knew it would rain today because I have dream yesterday.
8-Student have no question therefore all are ready for quiz.
9-A good teacher would be a good manager and leader.
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P1- Complex question

Presupposition buried in question imposing supposition.Presupposition buried in
question imposing supposition. An argument that begs the question asks the
reader to simply accept the conclusion without providing real evidence.

Example
• Do you still cheat on your exams?
• You must refuse to answer either “yes” or “no” because either answer would
imply that you are a cheater. That is, you may say, “Your question assumes
that I am a cheater, and I am not.”
 I avoid those meetings; I don't want to be brainwashed.
 “Murder is morally wrong. So active euthanasia is morally wrong.”
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P2-Circular argument/Begging the question

Circular argument conclusion is supposed, suggested answer and deceitful. A
complicated fallacy, an argument that begs the question asks the reader to
simply accept the conclusion without providing real evidence

Example
 Osama is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.”
 No cats are dogs, No dogs are cats.
 Critical thinking is that type of thinking in which we think critically.
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P3- False dilemma/dichotomy(Either/or )

• Either or ,choose between two extreme alternatives. A false dilemma
assumes that only two options exist.

Example
 We are completely free or everything is determined.
 You are either with us or against us.
 Either you agree with me or you hate me."
 Either people will support the building of the dam, or they are anti-
nationalist.
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R4-Appeal to emotion and pity; fear and threat

Manipulate other point view by feelings.

Example
 If you don’t give me an A, I’ll lose my GPA.
 If you don’t support my plan, the enemy will be crushed.
 Someone as smart as you can surely your argument is acceptable.
 "Politician X will take away your freedom of speech! Never trust on him.
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R5-Bandwagon
Everyone believes that popular argument is correct.

Example
• 90% people like Colgate so you too.
• Facebook has more users than any other social media site. Thus, Facebook
must be the best choice.
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R6- Ad hominem/personal attack

This fallacy translated as “Appeal to the man,” distorts a person's character,
destroying their credibility no matter how valid their argument. It is name
calling– attack the other person instead of the issue.

Example
 "I was surprised you agreed with her. She's kind of an extremist.
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R7-Accident
Over-generalization is mistakenly applied everywhere from one. It is committed
when a general rule is applied to a specific case.

Example
 Someone talking loud in operation theatre because of freedom of speech.
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R8- Straw man

• Different version of opponents’ argument, then take down. Arguers poison
the well by discrediting an opponent or opposing view in advance. We do
this all the time take an argument we disagree with and mischaracterize it so
it looks weak or extreme, thus making our own biasness. waters down an
opponent’s argument

Example
• “Hector’s book, due out next February, is nothing but a lame attempt to stir
up business for the organization she chairs.”
• You say you want to reform the criminal justice system. What, do you want
to free all the criminals?"
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R9-Missing point
Everyone believes that popular argument is correct.

Example
• 90% people like Colgate so you too.
• Facebook has more users than any other social media site. Thus, Facebook
must be the best choice.
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R 10-Red herring
It is distraction from main argument and an emotionally charged issue brought
up to divert attention from something the manipulator wants to avoid.

Example
• "You asked me why the unemployment rate has risen again, but I'll tell you
what's affecting this country's morale in even worse ways than that.“
• This medication is proven to reduce risk of heart disease. Heart disease can
be caused by smoking. Smoking also causes cancer.
• There is a good deal of talk these days about the need to eliminate
pesticides from our fruits and vegetables. But many of these foods are
essential to our health. Carrots are an excellent source of vitamin A, broccoli
is rich in iron, and oranges and grapefruit have lots of vitamin C.
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D11- Appeal to inappropriate authority

Authority is illegitimate ,no expertise on that matter. The testimonials appear in
advertisements are the obvious instances of the this fallacy.

Example
• An appeal to the opinions of Darwin, a towering authority in biology, would
be fallacious, as would be an appeal to the opinions of a great artist such as
Picasso to settle an economic dispute.
• We are told by Mr. Afridi to use a particular brand of Shampoo to remove
dandruff.
• Mr. Waseem Akram to use or endorse a particular detergent.
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D12-Ignorance of fact
• The truth of a claim is established only on the basis of lack of evidence
against it.

For example
• Unicorns exist because there is no evidence against such a claim.
• Aliens have never landed on Earth, or prove they have.
• Crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an alarming rate lately.
The conclusion is obvious: We must reinstate the death penalty immediately.
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D13-Hasty generalization
Jump to the conclusion quickly. An argument based on insufficient evidence,
often caused by a sample which is too small or is not representative of the
whole population.

Example
• If someone asserts that all people from Pakistan must be bad drivers
because the two people they've met from that country were awful driver and
they are Pakistani.
• My friend Amy recently traveled on an airplane for the first time, and the flight
attendant was impolite and did not provide good service. This shows that
everyone who works on an airplane is unkind and unhelpful.
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D14-False cause(Post Hoc)

• It occurs when there is no direct causal connection between occurrence and
observers mistakenly presume that one event is caused by the others.
Correlation of two event does not equal causation. This fallacy gets its name
from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after
this, therefore because of this." Assuming that because B comes after A, A
caused B
Example
• I get late whenever I wear royal blue shirt
• It rains as soon as we finalize picnic
• Immoral depravity has decrease in PTV air time and increase in Private
Channels.
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D15- False analogy

• This fallacy uses misleading comparisons to make the arguer seem right.
Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or
situations. If the two things that are being compared aren’t really alike in the
relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies
on it commits the fallacy of False analogy.

Example
• “Guns are like hammers—they’re both tools with metal parts that could be
used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase
of hammers
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D16-Slippery slope/Camel nose

One desirable action will lead to worse action and claim a chain reaction
will happen, with little evidence. If we allow one event, that event will set off a
chain of events leading to a terrible consequence. It assumes that there will be
no way to stop once the chain of events has been set in motion.

Example
• If you ‘ll not pay credit card bill, you’ll be behind on all of your bills and you’ll
gradually lose control of your finances. In time, your telephone and electricity
will be turned off, and you’ll eventually get evicted from your apartment. You'll
live out the rest of your life as a homeless person, wandering the streets.
• "If I give you a raise, then I have to give everyone a raise, and then the
company will go bankrupt.”
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A17-Equivocation =
Two or more meanings are used and moves from one meaning of a word to a
different meaning of the same word.

Example
• Law can be replaced by legislation so law of gravity too
• Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to
our money.
• Knowledge is power; Power is corrupt so Knowledge is corrupt.
• An athlete is human being, good athlete is good human being.
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A 18-Amphiboly
The combination of words interpreted more. A poor construction involve syntax,
or word or phrase order.

Example
• 50% discount up to
• 99.99%
• 2980
• The governor says, 'Save soap and waste paper. ' So soap is more valuable
than paper.
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A19-Accent
Different emphasis on same words. When speaking we can emphasize or
accent a word or phrase and change its meaning.

Example

What a shot ?
What a shot !
Take screen shot
Take vaccine first shot.
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A 20- Composition and Division

Composition
Assign attribute to part as whole. It infers that what applies to the group also applies to
the individual.
Example
• Na and Cl is poison so sodium is too poison not good for health.
• Buses use more fuel than cars.
• The fact is that individual buses use more fuel than individual cars.
Division
Assign attribute to whole as part it must follow that the same is true of the collection or
of the parts of the whole.
Example
• Salt is non-poison so chloride is also non-poison.
• this machine is heavy, its parts must be heavy.
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Application of Fallacies

• TVC commercial
• Social media content
• Political support
• Media programs
• Newspaper and articles
• Movies script
• Novel stories
• Marketing campaign
• Social media trends
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PRACTICE
Examples
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Practice
1. My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard,
too. All philosophy classes must be hard!“.

a) Appeal to emotion
b) Bandwagon
c) Hasty generalization
d) Ignorance of fact

Answer : C
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Practice
2. The meteorologist predicted the wrong amount of rain for May. Obviously the
meteorologist is unreliable.

a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to threat
d. Inappropriate authority

Answer : A
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Practice
3. I'm not a doctor, but I can take it from me that when you need effective take
safe pain killer.

a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to threat
d. Inappropriate authority

Answer : D
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Practice
4. "I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give
me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down, and I've had a cold, so
it was really hard for me to study!“

a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to emotion and pity
d. Inappropriate authority

Answer : C
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Practice
5. Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to
our money

a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to threat
d. Equivocation

Answer : D
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Practice
Why should we put people on trial when we know they are guilty?

a. Complex question
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to emotion
d. Begging the question