S.

No: 1b
Schedule: Week 1
Main Topic: Research Process

Instructor Name: Dr. Imran Hashmi

1
 SEQUENCE OF PRESENTATION
I. Formulating the research problem
II. Literature survey
III. Developing the hypothesis
IV. Preparing the research design
V. Data collection in physical, observation,
questionnaires, interviewing forms
VI. Variables & types of variable
VII.Data analysis, generalization and interpretation
2
 PART – 1
1700 – 1800 hours

3
 Introduction
For carrying out successful research, an
entrepreneurial spirit is required to spawn new and
innovative ideas.
This spirit for the pursuit of truth and the
extension of boundaries of knowledge means
nothing if not documented properly.
Since thesis / dissertation constitute a permanent
and tangible proof of the research work carried out
by graduate students, it should be written in a
scholarly and presentable manner which may be
acceptable internationally.
4
Although the requirements for presentation of
research results vary according to different fields
of specialization, certain features of organization,
arrangement, format and presentation are
common to most of such written work.
The present guidelines have been prepared to
present a standard format for writing the synopsis
and thesis to be presented at the University.
This will ensure uniformity in the format of the
synopsis / thesis and will help students towards a
standard style of presentation of their research
plans / findings. 5
6
7
8
I. Formulating the research
problem
One of the most difficult phases of a research project is the
choice of a suitable problem (TRUE/FALSE)

A researcher can be compared to an ant, which brings its

single grain of sand to the anthill (TRUE/FALSE)

Great discoveries usually happen by accident or sheer luck

(TRUE/FALSE)

Researchersare specialists rather than generalists

(TRUE/FALSE)

9
 Example: DWDS and premise plumbing

Premise plumbing
DWDS Storage Ideal ecological niche
Addition of disinfectants tank Front line to human
Limitation of growth exposure
supporting nutrients

Main
source
Water

line
Treatment
plant

Service
line

Reservoir

(USEPA, 2013) *DWDS: Drinking Water Distribution System 10

 Example: Deficiencies in DWDS

Intermittent supply

Monitoring

Distribution network

Point of consumption
Stagnation of water in taps

Microbial regrowth

Physicochemical parameters

Heavy metal concentrations 11

Researchers…
Analyze limited aspects of broad problems

Q: Why can’t we afford to do more than this?

Learn more and more about less and less until we know
everything about nothing

12
 Question
What are some of the obstacles which may discourage a
person from undertaking research?

13
Why choosing a topic is a real challenge?
Beginners possess real problem awareness

14
 Where do you see problems that may
ignite your mind to think about research?
 Classroom
 School
 Community
 Own teaching experiences
 Classroom lectures
 Class discussions
 Seminars/workshops/paper presentations
 Internet
 Out-of-class exchanges of ideas with fellow students and professors
 Reading assignments
 Textbooks
 Special assignments
 Research reports
 Term papers
 Consultation with…
 Course instructor
 Advisor
 Major Professor 15
Number ONE Requirement…
You need to have an inquisitive and imaginative mind
You need a Questioning attitude

Wonder why?

16
 Answer the following preliminary
questions…
Is the problem/topic significant enough?
Is it feasible (practical/possible for me to do it)?
Is it free of unknown hazards/dangers?
Is it clear (unambiguous)?

17
Actively involve yourself (and other experts) in
NARROWING & REFINEMENT of the
problem
Narrowing the focus
Population
Situation (time, condition, subject availability,
researcher’s readiness, resources available, etc.)
Measurements
Issue(s) dealt with?
Setting the scope of the problem
(“this is my line…I won’t go beyond it…”)

18
Note:

There are
times whe
t o r e pl i c a n it is app
te (repea ropriate
its conclu t ) a study
sions or t t o ve r i f y
of its find o extend th
ings to a e validity
or popula different
tion …… situation
….

19
 Characteristics of good topics :::
1. Interesting – keeps the researcher interested in it throughout
the research process

2. Researchable – can be investigated through the collection

and analysis of data

3. Significant – contributes to the improvement and

understanding of educational theory and practice

4. Manageable – fits the level of researcher’s level of research

skills, needed resources, and time restrictions

5. Ethical – does not embarrass or harm participants

20
 Your research problem
What is your area of interest?

Where could you look for help in deciding upon a specific

research problem?

What criteria will you apply when deciding upon a specific

research problem?

How could you narrow down your research problem?

How might your value-judgments (preconceived ideas)

affect your research endeavors?
21
II. Literature Survey (LR)

22
What is LR …?
A literature review discusses published
information in a particular subject area, and
sometimes information in a particular subject area
within a certain time period

A literature review can be just a simple summary

of the sources, but it usually has an organizational
pattern and combines both summary and synthesis

24
Why write LR …?
Rationalizing the significance of the problem
Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary
Understanding the structure of the subject
Relating ideas and theory to applications
Identifying methodologies and techniques that have
been used
Placing the research in a historical context to show
familiarity with state-of-the-art developments

25
Why write LR …?
Its purpose is to:
Place each work in the context of its contribution to the
understanding of the subject under review
Describe the relationship of each work to the others under
consideration
Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps
in, previous research
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous
studies
Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of
effort
Point the way forward for further research
Place one's original work (in the case of theses or
dissertations) in the context of existing literature
26
 What should I do before writing the
literature review …?
Clarify
Find models
Narrow your topic
Find a focus
Construct a working thesis statement
Consider organization
First, cover the basic categories

27
What should you write …?
Layout
Make your literature review have an academic and
professional appearance. Here are some points to make the
look of your report appealing to the reader
White space: leave space between sections, especially from
the abstract. This gives an uncluttered effect.
Headings/sub-headings: these help to separate ideas.
Text boxes: you can use these for quotations or paraphrasing to
separate them from the rest of your text. It is also pleasing to
the eye.

28
What should you write …?
Graphics: centre your graphics, such as diagrams or
tables, to have space around them. Try not to bury
graphics in your text.
Pagination: you can number pages or sections or both,
but the important thing to do is to be consistent. The
cover page normally is not numbered. The content
page and abstract page usually have a separate
numbering system to the body of your literature
review.
Final checklist
29
How to review …?
The whole process of reviewing includes:
a. Searching for literature
b. Sorting and prioritizing the retrieved literature
c. Analytical reading of papers
d. Evaluative reading of papers
e. Comparison across studies
f. Organizing the content
g. Writing the review

30
How to review …?
Set out your thinking on paper through maps and
trees.
Feature map Classifies and categorises your thought in tabular form

Links between concepts and processes, or shows relationship between

Concept map
ideas and practice

Shows how topic branches out into subthemes and related questions or
Tree construction
represents stages in the development of a topic.

31
III. Developing the Hypothesis

32
Processes involved before formulating
the hypothesis
Some of the methods that are included for research formulation are
Where does the problem origination or discovery begin?
 Previous Experience
 Triggered Interest
 Potential problem fields
Criteria of problems and problem statement
Goals & Planning
Search, Explore & Gather the Evidence
Generate creative and logical alternative solutions

MAKING THE EDUCATED GUESS-THE HYPOTHESIS!

33
Generation of Research Hypothesis
Problem statements become research hypotheses
when constructs are operationalized

34
Types of Hypothesis

35
 Example: Objectives

• Effect of overnight stagnation on

Evaluate the microbial quality

• Extent of changes in chlorinated

Compare and non-chlorinated water

• Predominant bacterial species in

Identify stagnant and flushed samples

36
 IV. Research Design
The arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much.

37
The designing decisions happen to be
in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

38
Split the overall research design into the
following parts:
(A) Sampling design
Method of selecting items to be observed;
(B) Observational design
Conditions under which the observations are to be made;
(C) Statistical design
Question of how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analyzed;
(D) Operational design
Techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out. 39
The important features of a research
design:
(i) A plan
specifies the sources & types of information relevant to
the research problem
(ii) A strategy
which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
(iii) The time and cost budgets
most studies are done under these two constraints

40
Research design must, at least, contain—

I. A clear statement of the research problem

II. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

information

III. The population to be studies

IV. Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

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 Overview of Research Design
Uses Types
•Formulate problems more precisely
•Literature search
•Develop Hypotheses
Exploratory •Interviews
•Establish priorities for research
Research •Ethnographies
•Eliminate impractical ideas
•Focus groups
•Clarify concepts

Descriptive •Describe segment characteristics

Research •Estimate proportion of people •Longitudinal study
who behave in a certain way •Panels
•Make specific predictions •Sample Survey

•Provide evidence regarding causal

Causal •Laboratory experiment
relationships
Research •Rule out all other explanations •Field experiment

42
Relationship Among Research Designs

Descriptive Research

Exploratory Research

Causal Research

43

43
 Different research designs
1. Exploratory research studies

2. Descriptive and diagnostic research studies

3. Hypothesis-testing research studies

 Principle of Replication
 Principle of Randomization
 Principle of Local Control
44
Types of ExperimentsLaboratory Experiment
Experiment
Scientific investigation in which
an investigator manipulates
and controls one or more
independent variables and
observes the dependent
variable for variation
concomitant to the
manipulation of the
independent variables
Research investigation in which
investigator creates a situation
with exact conditions, so as to
control some, and manipulate other,
variables
Field Experiment
Research study in a realistic situation
in which one or more independent
variables are manipulated by the
experimenter under as carefully
controlled conditions as the situation
will permit
45
45
Causal Research (Experimental Design)
• Internal Validity

46
Causal Research (Experimental Design)

• External Validity

47
Characteristics of “Good” Experiments

• Random assignment
• Comparison group/control group
• As a source of comparison
• As a control for rival hypotheses
• Generalizability/external validity
• Random selection

48
 Limitations of Experimentation
• Experiments can be time consuming

• Experiments are often expensive

• Experiments can be difficult to administer

• Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of

a field experiment.

49
 PART – 2
1815 – 1915 hours

50
V. Data collection and data analysis,
generalization and interpretation

“It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data”

51
 Data collection
Compilation and interpretation of primary and secondary
sources of information

52
 Sources of data
Primary Source Secondary Source
Data is collected by Data collected by
Researcher himself other
researchers eg.
Data is gathered Books
through Journals
Questionnaire Newspapers
Interviews Any reference must
be acknowledged
Observations etc.
53
 Primary data - Examples
Surveys

Focus groups

Questionnaires

Personal interviews

Experiments and observational study

54
 Primary data - Limitations
Do you have the time and money for?

 Designing your collection instrument

 Selecting your population or sample

 Pretesting/piloting the instrument to work out sources of bias

 Administration of the instrument

 Entry/collation of data

55
 Secondary data -examples
Health departments
Vital Statistics – birth, death certificates
Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
Private and foundation databases
City and country governments
Surveillance data from state government programs
Federal agency statistics - Census, NIH, etc

56
 Secondary data – Limitations
When was it collected? For how long?
May be out of date for what you want to analyze

May not have been collected long enough for detecting

trends
Are there confounding problems?
Sample selection bias

Source choice bias

In time series, did some observations drop out over time?
57
Primary data collection methods

1. Interviews

2. Questionnaires

3. Observation

58
 Interviewing
Structured: Pre-established questions

Unstructured: draw out information without the use

of pre-established questions

Semi-Structured: A mixture of both strategies

59
Types of Interview

60
 Conducting an interview
Conducting an interview that can generate relevant and
credible data requires:

 Thorough planning

 Preparation of an interview schedule & recording system

 Reflexive modification

 The actual interview

 Appropriate analysis

61
Effective way Involves verbal
and non-verbal
of gathering communications
information

INTERVIEW

Can be conducted
face to face, by telephone,
online or through mail
62
 Steps to an effective interview
Prepare your interview schedule

Select your subjects/ key informants

Conduct the interview

Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

63
 Surveys
Surveying involves gathering information from individuals using a
questionnaire

Surveys can
 Reach a large number of respondents

 Generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as well as some

qualitative data

 Offer confidentiality / anonymity

Designing survey instruments capable of generating credible data,

however, can be difficult

64
 Survey types
Surveys can be:

Descriptive or explanatory

Involve entire populations or samples of populations

Capture a moment or map trends

Can be administered in a number of ways

65
 Useful to collect
The most common quantitative and qualitative
data collection instrument information

Survey
Questionnaire

Should contain 3 elements:

1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions
66
Types of survey questionnaire
1. Open-ended Questions 2. Close -ended Questions

 Free-response ◦ Dichotomous question

(Text Open End)
◦ Multiple-choice
 Fill-in relevant information
◦ Rank

◦ Scale

◦ Categorical

◦ Numerical 67
Steps to an effective survey questionnaire
Prepare your survey questions
(Formulate types of questions, order them, write instructions)

Select your respondents/sampling

Random/Selected

Administer the survey questionnaire

(date, venue, time )

Tabulate data collected

(Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% )

Analyze and interpret data collected

68
 Observation
Observation: A systematic method of data collection that
relies on a researcher’s ability to gather data through their
senses

Observe: To notice using a full range of appropriate

senses. To see, hear, feel, taste, and smell

69
 The observation process
The collection of credible data through observation requires:

 Thorough planning

 Careful observation

 Thoughtful recording

 Reflexive review

 Considered refinements

 Appropriate analysis
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Filtering observations

71
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

Non-participant: In this role, the researcher

does not become, nor aims to become an
integral part of the system or community
they are observing

Participant: In this role, the researcher is, or

becomes, a part of the team, community, or
cultural group they are observing
72
 Observe verbal &
non-verbal communication, Need to keep
surrounding atmosphere, meticulous records of
culture & situation the observations

Observations

Can be done through discussions,

observations of habits, rituals,
review of documentation,
experiments

73
Steps to an effective observation
Determine what needs to be observed
(Plan, prepare checklist, how to record data)

Select your participants

Random/Selected

Conduct the observation

(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs)

Compile data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

74
 Example: (i) Physicochemical Analysis

On site
In Lab

Conductivity(µS/cm) Turbidity (NTU) TDS(mg/L)

pH/Temperature (OC) Free chlorine(mg/L)

Hardness(mg/L) Alkalinity(mg/L) 75
Example: (ii) Microbiological Analysis

Spread Plate Most Probable

Technique Number

Streak Plate
Technique 76
 Example: (iii) Identification & Characterization

Biochemical
Morphological

Colony Morphology
Catalase test Cell Morphology
Oxidase test Motility test
Differential media
Physiological

API test
Oxidation/Optimum temperature/pH 77
78
79
 VI.
Variables are properties or characteristics of people or things
that vary in quality or magnitude from person to person or
object to object (Miller & Nicholson, 1976)
 Demographic characteristics

 Personality traits

 Communication styles

 Competencies

80
 Variable
Variable“any entity that can take on a variety of different
values” (Wrench et al, 2008, p. 104)
 Gender

 Self-esteem

 Managerial style

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 Variation in Variable
Attributes, values, and levels are the variations in a variable

 Attribute
 Political party, Self-esteem

 Value
 Democrat, Republican, Independent, etc.

 Level
 High, Medium, Low
82
 Measurement Scales
Following are the variation measurement scales:

1. Nominal scale

2. Ordinal scale

3. Interval scale

4. Ratio scale
83
 Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is an unordered set of categories
identified only by name.
Nominal measurements only permit you to determine
whether two individuals are the same or different.
In research activities YES/NO scale is nominal.

84
 Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale is an ordered set of categories.
Ordinal measurements tell you the direction of difference
between two individuals.
The simplest ordinal scale is ranking.

85
 Interval Scale
An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized
categories.
Interval measurements identify the direction and
magnitude of a difference.
The zero point is located arbitrarily on an interval scale.
Interval scales are also scales which are defined by
matrices such as logarithm.

86
 Ratio Scale
A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of zero
indicates none of the variable.
Ratio measurements identify the direction and magnitude
of differences and allow ratio comparisons of
measurements.
The simplest example of ratio scale is measurement of
length.

This Device Provides Two Examples of Ratio

Scales (height and weight)

87
 Types of Variables
Following are the common types of variables classified by role
of variable

 Independent variable

 Dependent variable

 Mediating variable

 Moderator variable

 Extraneous variable
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 Independent Variable
Independent variable is symbolized as IV

A variable that is presumed to cause changes to occur in

another variable; a causal variable

Example: Amount of studying (IV) affects test grades

89
 Dependent Variable
Dependent variable symbolized as DV

A variable that changes because of another variable; the

effect or outcome variable

Example: Amount of studying (IV) affects test grades

(DV).

90
 Cause-and-Effect Relationship
 A cause-and-effect relationship
between an independent variable
and a dependent variable is
present when changes in the
independent variable tend to cause
changes in the dependent variable

 Sometimes researchers call the

dependent variable an outcome
variable because it is used to
measure the effect of one or more
independent variables

91
 Mediating Variable
Mediating variable also called an intervening variable

A variable that comes in between other variables, helping

to delineate the process through which variables affect
one another

Example: Amount of studying (IV) leads to input and

organization of knowledge in long-term memory
(mediating variable), which affects test grades (DV).
92
 Moderator Variable
A variable that delineates how a relationship of interest
changes under different conditions or circumstances

Perhaps the relationship between studying (IV) and test

grades (DV) changes according to the different levels of
use of a drug such as Ritalin (moderator).

93
 Extraneous Variable
A variable that may compete with the independent
variable in explaining an outcome

Example: Perhaps an observed relationship between

coffee drinking (IV) and cancer (DV) is actually due to
smoking cigarettes

94
 VII. Data analysis, generalization &
interpretation
Compilation and interpretation of primary and secondary
sources of information.

The integration of different sources will consolidate the write up

of the report.

95
 Data analysis
1. To analyze data from interviews and observation, use
• Summary sheet
• Checklist

2. To analyze data from questionnaires, use

• Manually
• SPSS

3. In a small scale study, the most common forms of statistical

analysis presented are:
• Frequency
• Mean
• Percentage
96
 Three steps to data analysis

Analyze Results

Communicate Findings

Use Findings for Program Improvement

97
 Keep it simple
Aim for a systematic effort

Keep your audience in mind

Pay attention to the usability of your

evaluation report

98
 Summary statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean
Median
Range
Frequency distributions
Percentage distributions

99
 Analyzing qualitative data
Content analysis” steps:
1. Transcribe data (if audio taped)
2. Read transcripts
3. Highlight quotes and note why important
4. Code quotes according to margin notes
5. Sort quotes into coded groups (themes)
6. Interpret patterns in quotes
7. Describe these patterns

100
 Ensuring validity in qualitative
analysis
Be systematic
Use multiple raters
Attend to context (e.g. keep track of who said what)
Account for outlying and surprising statements
Triangulate

101
 Data generalization
Data generalization
– A process which abstracts a large set of task-relevant
data in a database from a low conceptual levels to
higher ones.
1
2
3
4 Conceptual levels

– Approaches:
 Data cube approach(OLAP approach)

 Attribute-oriented induction approach

102
Presentation of generalized results
• Generalized relation:
• Relations where some or all attributes are generalized, with counts or other
aggregation values accumulated.

• Cross tabulation:
• Mapping results into cross tabulation form (similar to contingency tables).
• Visualization techniques:
• Pie charts, bar charts, curves, cubes, and other visual forms.

• Quantitative characteristic rules:

• Mapping generalized result into characteristic rules with quantitative
information associated with it, e.g.,

103
 Data interpretation
1. It involves 2 terms
• ‘Results’ – presentation of data/findings (statistics)
• ‘Discussion’ – interpretation of data/findings

2. Things to consider when interpreting your data:

• Interpret findings based on the purpose and
objectives of your study
• Relate the findings to real life context
• Use persuasive language to convince your readers
to see the research from your point of view.
• Order your interpretation to highlight the most important
findings
• Include limitations to your research.
• Use simple, clear language
104
 Interpretation – relevance of
finding …
Adding meaning to information by making
connections and comparisons and exploring
causes and consequences

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research

105
 Interpretation – relevance of
finding
Does the indicator meet the target?
How far from the target is it?
How does it compare (to other time periods, other
facilities)?
Are there any extreme highs and lows in the data?

106
Interpretation – possible causes ?
Supplement with expert opinion
Others with knowledge of the program or target
population

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research

107
Interpretation – consider other data

Use routine service data to clarify questions

Calculate nurse-to-client ratio, review
commodities data against client load, etc.
Use other data sources

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research

108
Interpretation – other data sources

Situation analyses
Demographic and health surveys
Performance improvement data

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research

109
Interpretation – conduct further
research

Data gap conduct further research

Methodology depends on questions being asked
and resources available

Conduct
Relevance Reasons Consider
further
of finding for finding other data
research

110
 Key messages …
Use the right graph for the right data
Tables – can display a large amount of data
Graphs/charts – visual, easier to detect patterns
Label the components of your graphic
Interpreting data adds meaning by making connections
and comparisons to program
Service data are good at tracking progress & identifying
concerns – do not show causality

111
 Selected References
Kothari, C. R. 2004. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques,
New Age International (P) Limited.

Kumar, R. 2005. Research Methodology: A Step By Step Guide for

Beginners, 2/E, Pearson Education.

David E. G. 2004. Doing Research in the Real World, SAGE

Publication, London.

Wenzhong Shi, Peter F. Fisher and Michael F. Goodchild. 2002. Spatial

Data Quality, Taylor & Frances, New York.

Internet Sources
112
http://www.indiana.edu/~educy520/sec5982/week_2/
variable_types.pdf

http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/
types_of_variables.htm

http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/
ResearchMethods/RM_2_14.html

https://www.google.com.pk/search?
q=thank+you+images&espv=2&biw=1280&bih=680&sou
rce=lnms&sa=X&ei=a1HhVPPSMsz9aLeOgdgO&ved=0C
AUQ_AUoAA&dpr=1#q=variable+and+its+types+ppt
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