Lecture # 01

Engr. Shakeel A.Laghari

Data representation and processing
 y ’s
o d a e
T ctur
le

l i n e a
O ut t d
n
at
ct u re pre s
r
e
e d ata
e
L pute proce rs s s
c o m ers
o w u t
1. H comp ure
w e c t
2. Ho rchit s
P U a y p e
3. C o r y t
4. Me m
How computers
represent data
??
?
Bits and bytes
Binary digits---bits

A byte comprises of 8 bits

and represents 1 character
Text codes
Converts letters into binary format

?
Is there a need of a standard code
ASCII
(American English symbols)
Extended ASCII
(Graphics and other symbols)
Unicode
(All languages on the planet)
How computers
process data
??
?
Central Processing Unit

CPU

Control Unit Arithmetic/

Logic Unit
(ALU)
 System Clock
Synchronizes all computer operations

Faster clock speed means the CPU can

execute more instructions each second

Units: MHz and GHz

 CPU Registers
Temporary storage location used by the CPU

High speed memory in CPU that stores:

1. Instruction while being decoded
2. Location from where instruction
was fetched
3. Data while the ALU processes it
4. Results of a calculation
Control Unit directs and coordinates most
of the computer operations

4 basic operations:
 Fetch – obtain a
program instruction or
data item from memory
 Decode - translate the
instruction into
commands
 Execute - carry out the
command
 Store - write the result to
memory
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Comparison
(greater than, equal
to, or less than)

d .
.a n
.or. .not.
Arithmetic Logical
(addition, subtraction, (AND, OR,
multiplication, and NOT)
division)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Performs the execution part of the machine cycle

d.
CPU
. a n
Control Unit Arithmetic/
Logic Unit
.or. (ALU)
.n o t
.
Machine Cycle
4 operations of the CPU (control unit)
comprise a machine cycle; also called an
instruction cycle
Instruction time– time to fetch and decode
Execution time– time to execute and store

e-time i-time
Example
A student
Step 1: The
2:
3:
4: enters
ALU
control
a
mathdecodes
control
unit
executes
results
problem
of
unit
the
the math
the
into
the memory
fetches
problem
math problem
the math
ofare
and
the
computer
problem
sends
stored itinto
from
memory
the ALU
memory
The result in
memory displays
on the screen of
the monitor
 Memory

Volatile memory
volatile Memory
Loses its contents when the
nonvolatile
Loses its contents
computer's power is turned off memory
when the computer's
power is turned off Does not lose its
contents when the
computer’s power
is turned off
 Memory
2 basic types of RAM chips
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)
Also called main memory Used for special
Most common type applications such as
cache
Variations:
Faster and more
Synchronous DRAM reliable than DRAM
(SDRAM)
chips
Double data rate SDRAM
(DDR SDRAM or SDRAM II)

Direct Rambus® DRAM

(Direct RDRAM®)
 Memory Cache
Also called cache store or RAM cache

Limited very fast memory

Lower access time
Stores frequently used
instructions/ data to
speed up processing
 Three levels of Cache
Level 1 (L1) • Primary or internal cache
• Built directly into the processor chip
• Small capacity

Level 2 (L2) On older computers On newer computers

•Advanced transfer
External cache cache
High-speed SRAM
Larger, but • built directly on the
chips on motherboard
slower, capacity processor chip

Only on newer
• Not used on older computers with L2
Level 3 (L3) advanced transfer cache
computers
Cache on motherboard
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Fixed start-up instructions

BIOS
Read-only Non-volatile (basic input/output
system)
Stored on ROM
 Types of ROM
Firmware
ROM chips
manufactured with PROM
permanently
(programmable EEPROM
written data,
read-only (electrically
instructions, or
memory) Blank erasable
information
ROM on which programmable read-
you can place only memory)
items A type of PROM
permanently containing
microcode that a
programmer can
erase
 Flash Memory
 Nonvolatile EEPROM memory that
can be erased and reprogrammed
 Stores data and programs on many
handheld computers and devices
 CMOS Memory
Flexible start-up
instructions

Complementary
metal-oxide Stores configuration
semiconductor information about
memory the computer Uses a battery
• Disk drives to retain the
• Keyboard information
when the
• Monitor
computer is
• Time/ date turned off