Academic

Writing
Supervised by
Dr.Hamzah Alumari
 This chapter discusses

hypotheses for both

the process of writing
research quantitative and
purpose statements
questions qualitative research
studies

It provides An explanation of variables, their roles, and examples.

How they are used in different research designs.

 01. concepts such as constructs

The text also introduces 02. descriptive questions

03.
relationship questions,
comparison questions

null hypotheses, and

04. alternative hypotheses.
The purpose statement is a succinct sentence that provides the overall
direction or focus for a study, typically found in the "statement of the
problem" section.

 In both quantitative and qualitative research, the purpose statement may

begin with "The purpose of this study is...". Research questions are
specific inquiries that narrow down the purpose statement in a study,
developed before identifying the study methods and are typically multiple
to fully explore a topic.
They exist in both quantitative and qualitative
research but differ in their elements:
1- In quantitative research
the questions relate to attributes or characteristics
of individuals or organizations, referred to as
variables. 3- Hypotheses are predictions
2- In qualitative research made by the researcher about the outcome
the questions include the central concept being of relationships among characteristics, based
explored, known as a central phenomenon. on past research and literature.

4- Research objectives
are statements of intent that specify the
goals of a study, often used in surveys,
questionnaires, or evaluation research.
 The importance of these statements and questions lies in their
role in guiding readers through the study, highlighting central
ideas, identifying suitable data collection methods, and
understanding the study's results.

 To write effective purpose statements and research questions,

one needs to understand certain concepts and establish the
building blocks for incorporating these elements into a study.
In research
• variables are characteristics or attributes that can be measured or observed
and vary among individuals or organizations.

• They can be scored in two ways: categorical (grouped into a limited number
of categories) and continuous (measured on a continuum of scores, from low
to high).

• Understanding these classifications helps in understanding different types of

variables and their use in purpose statements, research questions, and
hypotheses.
Constructs are abstract
general concepts that are not directly observable or measurable,
while variables are specific attributes or characteristics that can
be directly observed, measured, and vary among individuals or
over time.

In educational research, the trend is to use variables rather than

constructs in purpose statements, research questions, and
hypotheses because variables are more specific and measurable.
 The concept of the "Family of Variables" in quantitative research:

• includes dependent variables, independent variables, control variables,

intervening variables, and confounding variables.

• Dependent variables are the outcomes or results that the researcher is trying to
explain, while independent variables are factors or conditions that are
manipulated or considered to see if they affect the dependent variable.

• Control variables are variables that the researcher wants to control or keep
constant so they don't interfere with the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables. Intervening variables occur between the independent
and dependent variables and may have an effect on the relationship between
them. Confounding variables are variables that the researcher cannot measure
or control but might still affect the outcome of the study.
When designing a study:

 researchers should ask themselves what outcomes they're trying to explain,

what factors might influence those outcomes, what variables they need to control,
and what variables might influence the outcomes but can't be measured. This
helps in structuring the study and ensuring its validity.

 Dependent variables: are outcomes or results that researchers aim to explain

or predict, often measured using continuous or categorical scores. They can be
identified by examining purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses
for the outcomes they wish to explain. In education research, multiple dependent
variables are typically investigated in a single study, with one of the dependent
variables being of central interest.
Independent variables, on the other hand, are factors or conditions that are
manipulated or considered to see if they affect the dependent variable. There
are four types of independent variables:

measured variable
• control variables

treatment variables
• moderating variables
These variables are used to understand the cause-effect relationship
between variables.
Measured variables are observed or measured by the researcher, consisting of
continuous or categorical scores.
Control variables, such as personal demographic attributes or characteristics, are not
central variables of concern in explaining the dependent variables or outcomes. They are
typically controlled through statistical procedures to ensure they do not influence the
dependent variable.

Moderating variables, which affect the strength or direction of the relationship

between an independent and a dependent variable, are often used in educational
experiments.
Interaction effects are a special form of independent variable
where the effect of one independent variable on the dependent
variable differs based on the level of another independent
variable.

Independent variables in research can be found in purpose statements,

research questions, and hypotheses of a study. They are variables that influence
or predict an outcome and can be described in categories or on a continuous
scale of scores.
Intervening variables occur between the independent and dependent variables
and may have an effect on the relationship between them. They are also called
mediating variables and can be controlled using statistical procedures.
To locate mediating variables in purpose statements, research hypotheses, or
questions, look for variables that "stand" between the independent and dependent
variables in a sequence of events or look for the words "mediate" or "intervene." In
some quantitative studies, intervening variables are controlled using statistical
procedures. Confounding variables, sometimes referred to as spurious variables, are
attributes or characteristics that can influence the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables in a study but are not directly measured
because their effects cannot be easily separated from those of other variables.
A step-by-step procedure to identify and organize variables in a research
study is to create a chart with three columns labeled as 'independent',
'intervening', and 'dependent' variables. The dependent variable is identified
by looking at:

The study's title.

 purpose statement.
 questions.
 hypotheses to determine the outcomes the author seeks to explain.

The independent variables are determined by determining what factors

influence the outcome, such as whether the independent variable is assessed
as two or more groups, or if the author plans to intervene with one group and
withhold an intervention with another group.
 The role of theory in quantitative research is to provide a broad
explanation that predicts the probable relationship between
independent and dependent variables. It is based on past research and
literature that suggest certain outcomes, and is tested by researchers
who locate a theory in the literature, examine the predicted relationship
among variables, and then test the relationships with new participants
or sites. The theory serves as a bridge that connects the independent
and dependent variables, helping researchers explain and understand
the cause-and-effect relationship between variables.
To write purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses
for quantitative research, follow these guidelines:

A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can be measured or observed

and varies among individuals or organizations.

• A theory is a broad explanation that predicts the probable relationship

between independent and dependent variables.
A purpose statement advances the overall direction or focus for the study,
identifying the variables, their relationship, and the participants and research
site for research.
• A research question narrows the purpose statement to specific questions
that the researcher seeks to answer, such as descriptive, relationship, or
comparison questions.
A hypothesis is a statement that makes a prediction or conjecture about the
outcome of a relationship among variables.
To write a quantitative purpose statement, identify these
elements:

the theory

research independent
site variable(s)

dependent
participants
variable(s)
 5. State the independent variable first, followed by the dependent variable, and then any control or intervening variables.

We can follow these steps:

1. Write the purpose statement in a single sentence.

2. Begin with key identifier words, such as "The purpose of this study."
3. If using a theory, introduce it by stating that the plan is to "test a theory".

4. Use words like relate, compare, or describe to indicate whether variables will
be related, groups will be compared, or variables will be described.

5. State the independent variable first, followed by the dependent variable, and
then any control or intervening variables.
Writing research questions is crucial for narrowing down and
specifying the purpose of a study, as they help restate the purpose
in specific questions that the researcher aims to answer.
Three popular forms of research questions are:

descriptive questions

relationship questions

comparison questions
In quantitative research, hypotheses play a crucial role in making
predictions about expected outcomes. They focus on relationships
between variables rather than describing a single variable.
Two types of hypotheses are:

o the null hypothesis (H0).

o the alternative hypothesis (H1).
The null hypothesis is the traditional form of a hypothesis in hypothesis
testing, assuming that there is no significant difference or relationship
between variables. It also predicts that any observed differences or
relationships in a sample are due to random chance rather than a true
effect in the population.

To write a null hypothesis, researchers use guidelines such as stating

the variables in the order of independent, dependent, and control,
specifying group comparisons or relationships, making predictions
about changes, and including participant and site information. However,
in research reports, researchers typically write and focus on one type,
as statistical analyses are designed to test the null hypothesis. If the
data significantly deviates from what the null hypothesis predicts,
researchers may reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative
hypothesis.
In summary, hypotheses play a predictive role in quantitative research,
helping researchers make specific statements about expected
outcomes. The null hypothesis serves different purposes, with
statistical analyses primarily focused on testing the null hypothesis.
Researchers report the hypothesis that aligns with their research
question and focus on the results that support or reject the null
hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is a conservative assumption that suggests no

effect or difference in the population. Researchers use statistical
analysis to determine if the observed data provides enough evidence to
reject the null hypothesis in favor of an alternative hypothesis, which
suggests a real effect or difference. There are two types of alternative
hypotheses: directional and nondirectional.
Directional alternative hypotheses predict the direction of a change, difference, or
relationship in the total population. For example, a researcher may predict that
students who participate in direct learning will have higher achievement scores
than those who participate in whole-language learning. Nondirectional alternative
hypotheses predict a change, difference, or relationship for variables in a
population but do not specify the direction.

Directional hypotheses are more common because researchers often have

specific expectations based on existing literature or theory. Nondirectional
hypotheses are used when researchers want to explore the possibility of a
difference without committing to a specific direction. The choice between a
directional and nondirectional alternative hypothesis depends on the researcher's
expectations and the available evidence from previous research or theory. The
distinction lies in whether the researcher specifies the expected direction of the
effect.

.
Qualitative research is a distinct approach to understanding and
exploring the experiences of individuals or groups. It is characterized by
a focus on a single, central phenomenon, which is the main concept or
idea that researchers aim to explore and understand deeply. This is
different from quantitative research, which often starts with
predetermined variables and hypotheses.

The central phenomenon in qualitative research refers to the main

concept or idea that researchers aim to explore and understand deeply.
This concept is often the lived experience of cancer survivors, which
guides the entire study. The emerging process in qualitative research
refers to the dynamic and flexible nature of the research design, allowing
for the discovery and emergence of themes, patterns, or concepts during
the study. This is in contrast to the close-ended stance of quantitative
research, where variables and hypotheses are defined before the study
begins.
.
Key differences in qualitative research include testing theories, comparisons
and relationships, and the open-ended and emergent nature of the research
design.

In summary, qualitative research involves a deep exploration of a central

phenomenon with a flexible and emergent process, which contrasts with the
more structured and hypothesis-driven nature of quantitative research.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for crafting purpose statements
and research questions in qualitative studies.
The essence of qualitative research is the deep exploration of a central
phenomenon, whether it's a concept or a process. The approach is
exploratory, allowing for the emergence of themes, patterns, and
relationships during the study. Unlike quantitative research, which often
starts with predetermined variables and hypotheses, qualitative research
embraces an open-ended stance, seeking to understand the complexities of
a singular phenomenon.

Qualitative research is characterized by its dynamic and participant-centric

nature, where the researcher's questions and study direction may change
based on ongoing interactions and insights gained during the research
process. This iterative approach contributes to a deeper and more
contextually rich understanding of the central phenomenon under
investigation.
The emerging design in qualitative research indicates that the study's intent,
purpose, and research questions may evolve during the research process.
The emerging process reflects the flexibility and responsiveness of
qualitative research to participant feedback and responses. Participant-
centric direction allows participants to set the direction of the study, learning
from their views rather than imposing preconceived notions.

.
The dynamic process of asking questions involves initiation and shaping,
with continuous revisions occurring throughout data collection and analysis.
The changing direction of the study is expected to change during the
research process, and authors may rewrite their purpose statement and
research questions to reflect the evolving understanding of the central
phenomenon.

The purpose of qualitative research is to establish the detailed meaning of

information rather than generalize results and standardize responses from all
participants. It aims for a rich understanding of the central phenomenon
within the context of participants' experiences.
Writing a qualitative purpose statement is crucial in reflecting the emerging
process and central phenomenon in qualitative research. Key components of
a purpose statement include the intent to explore or understand a central
phenomenon with specific individuals at a particular research site. Guidelines
for writing a qualitative purpose statement include key identifier words,
clarifying the qualitative nature, specifying the research design, stating the
central phenomenon, conveying intent, including participants, and referring to
the research site.

A sample script for writing a qualitative purpose statement can be found in the
provided script format, which facilitates the creation of purpose statements by
emphasizing key elements such as exploration, central phenomenon,
participants, and research site.
In summary, crafting a qualitative purpose statement involves carefully
articulating the intent of the study, specifying the central phenomenon,
identifying participants, and indicating the research site.

Qualitative research questions are open-ended and general, allowing

participants to share their perspectives on the central phenomenon being
studied.
Guidelines for designing these questions include expecting changes,
asking few general questions, using neutral, exploratory language, and
designing both a central question and subquestions.
The central question is the overarching question explored in a research
study, typically placed at the end of the introduction. Strategies for designing
include starting with "how" or "what" to suggest exploration, specifying the
central phenomenon, identifying participants, and mentioning the research
site.

Challenges in writing the central question include education and awareness,

balancing openness and direction, and avoiding overly broad, overly
focused, or assumption-laden questions.

Examples of poor or improved examples can be found in Table 4.3. Overly

broad questions may result in a lack of understanding, overly focused
questions may miss the larger process, and assumptions-laden questions
may limit what the researcher can learn from a situation.
To craft effective central research questions, a careful balance between
providing direction for the study and allowing for openness is necessary.
Avoiding pitfalls, such as questions being too broad, overly focused, or laden
with assumptions, and recognizing that qualitative questions may change and
emerge during the study is essential.

Subquestions play a crucial role in qualitative research, providing specificity

and guiding the exploration or analysis of a central question. There are two
types: issue subquestions and procedural subquestions. Issue subquestions
narrow the focus of the central question, delving into specific questions or
issues the researcher wants to explore with participants. They break down the
central phenomenon, such as self-esteem, into specific areas for exploration.
Procedural subquestions outline the steps to be used in analyzing data in a
qualitative study, providing a more detailed understanding of the analytical
process. They are less common than issue subquestions, as the procedures
for a qualitative study may evolve during the research. For example, Maria's
Study would have issue subquestions, such as "What are students’
experiences with weapons in high schools?" and procedural subquestions,
which outline the categories of experiences, processes, and hypotheses
that reflect these experiences.
In summary, subquestions in qualitative research serve to refine the central
question by exploring specific issues related to the central phenomenon or
outlining the steps in the data analysis process.

Core questions, also known as subquestions, guide the research by breaking

down the central phenomenon into more detailed aspects, providing focus and
direction.
Data collection questions are specific and practical, designed to collect
information directly from participants and are often based on or aligned with
the core questions.

Opening and closing questions in interviews serve multiple purposes, allowing

participants to provide additional information and ask for suggestions on other
individuals who might contribute valuable data. Opening questions play a
crucial role in initiating communication and building rapport with participants,
while closing questions serve interpersonal and logistical functions. Overall,
both types of questions are important in the qualitative research process.
Thank you!