FIRE PROTECTION

DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

fire is a special
kind of oxidation
known as
combustion
fire has a triangle of
needs:
fuel
high temperature
oxygen
if deprived of any of
these needs,
building fires will be
extinguished
 triangle’s influence on building design
is as follows
FUEL:
building’s structure and contents
designer controls the choice of
structural and finish materials but rarely
the final contents

TEMPERATURES:
achieved in fires are well beyond the
ability of building cooling systems to
control,
OXYGEN:
limitations on ventilation, but these
can have serious safety consequences
install fire suppression systems that
either cover the fuel or displace
oxygen with another gas
 Sources of Ignition
buildings commonly contain
three basic sources of ignition:
chemical
electrical
mechanical
 chemical combustion
some chemicals reach ignition at
ordinary temperatures within
buildings
chemical combustion depends
upon
the rate of heat generation
the air supply
electrical
electrical heat
energy is most
commonly supplied
by
resistance
heating
induction
dielectic process
arcing
static electricity
mechanical
mechanical heat
energy is produced
by friction
including sparks
by overheating
of machinery
occasionally by
the heat of
compression
 Products of Combustion
thermal products:
flame and heat

Non-thermal
products:
smoke and its
wide range of
constituent gases,
liquids, and solids
 thermal products
can cause
burns
Shock
Dehydration
heat exhaustion
fluid blockage of the respiratory
tract
responsible for about 25% of the
deaths resulting from building fires
 Nonthermal products
most fire deaths are caused by
this
it irritates the eyes and nasal
passages
some gases are directly toxic
displace oxygen
common gases - carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide
 Carbon monoxide
a deadly product of
combustion and is
often the most
abundant
produced when
insufficient oxygen is
available to
completely oxidize the
burning material
Carbon dioxide
produced in large
quantities
should not be
present in
concentrations with
serious health
impacts (beyond
potential headaches
and dizziness)
 other dangerous and commonly
encountered building-fire gases
hydrogen sulfide
sulfur dioxide
ammonia
oxides of nitrogen
cyanide
phosgene
hydrogen chloride
these types of gases may
cause eye, skin, nose, and
throat irritation
the normal concentration
of oxygen in air is about
21%
at less than 17%,
muscular coordination and
judgment are diminished
at 14% down to 10%,
people remain conscious
but become irrational, and
at 10% down to 6%, collapse occurs, but
revival is possible when increased oxygen
is supplied
the technique of starving the fire of
oxygen can therefore pose a threat to
human beings
both by increasing the chances of carbon
monoxide production and by depriving
people of oxygen
 Fire Safety and Other
Environmental Control Systems
Optimum design for fire safety
resembles the optimum design
for lighting, thermal, and water
system
thermal mass
useful for
for heating
and cooling
systems
for acoustic
isolation
for fire
barriers
high ceilings
useful for
 daylight distribution
 displacement ventilation
 collecting a large quantity
of smoke before it reaches
the occupants
 allowing smoke and/or
flames from a fire to be
seen from a greater indoor
distance
windows
for daylight,
ventilation,
and view
allow access
for fire fighting and rescue
provide escape routes
relieve smoke accumulation with fresh air
relieve some of the stress of trapped
occupants
solid overhangs over
windows
provide sunshading
but also discourage
the vertical spread of
fire over the building
face
can serve as
emergency exterior
places of refuge
elevated water
storage tanks
provide both
adequate water
pressure for
plumbing fixtures
water for
firefighting in the first few
minutes of a fire before
firefighters arrive
 Objectives in Fire Safety

1.Protection of
life
2.Protection of
property
3.Continuity of
operation
Protection of
Life
 designers should
consider how building
occupants make decisions
in a fire
 first phase
cues are detected—the smell of smoke, sounds
associated with a fire and, more rarely, the sight of
flames
open plans (with longer visible indoor distances) are
more amenable to exposing such clues to a wider
population
second phase
the occupants define the situation:
Just how serious is this fire?
the more numerous the cues, the more
rapid the definition phase
how other people are reacting is
influential, and in the absence of strong
cues can actually lead to a group
refusal to evacuate in the early stages
of a fire
third phase
coping behavior
begins:
fight or flight ?
 for most low-rise buildings
reasonable goal is the evacuation of all
occupants in the time interval between the
detection of a fire and the arrival of the
firefighters
 designers can provide clearly defined
pathways to exits (exit access) that can be
kept relatively clear of smoke
 exits can take a variety of
forms
vertical exits include
smokeproof towers,
exterior and interior
stairs and ramps, and
escalators that meet
specific requirements
vertical exits do not
include elevators
 exits in the horizontal plane
include doors leading
directly to the outside, 2-
hour fire-rated enclosed
hallways, and moving walks
 building population as estimated for fire
safety is usually much greater than the
population for which HVAC, water, or
elevator service is designed
 stairs with direct access to outdoor air at
each floor—so-called smokeproof towers—
are the safest kind
 fire stair must allow firefighters to move
up while occupants are moving down.
 another phenomenon is reentry, in which
occupants who have exited decide to
reenter despite the danger
 high-rise buildings present much more
difficult problems
 firefighting equipment can ordinarily reach
no higher than seven floors (about 90 ft
[27 m])
 typically, only two exit stairways are
provided
 downward flow rates in stairs were
formerly assumed at about 45 persons/
minute/22 in. (559 mm) of width, but more
recently, peak flows of only 24
persons/minute/22 in. (559 mm) have
been observed.
 Property Protection
site should permit access for firefighting
equipment
amount of time for firefighters to reach a site
adequate water to fight the fire
exposure protection is becoming common
in areas where highly flammable surroundings
pose a serious threat of fires originating
outside a building
exposure protection guards against heat transfer by
radiation and convective currents and against direct fire
transfer via flying embers
exposure protection
begins with the use of
nonflammable materials
for the building’s exterior
Firewall
External fire sprinkler
Fire-rated shutters
compartmentation
concealed spaces
structural protection allows a building to continue to stand
during a fire and enables it to be salvaged rather than
 Continuity of Operations
 for most building functions, it is desirable to minimize
the disruption of operation that a fire will cause
 design strategies to encourage continuity of operations
include
special fire alarm/suppression systems for
especially critical operations areas
design of HVAC systems to allow for 100%
outside air
provision for the speedy removal of the water
dumped on a fire from a sprinkler system
 Smoke Management

refuge area
compartmentation
curtain boards
dilution
Exhaust
Automatic ventilating hatches
WATER FOR FIRE
SUPPRESSION
 WATER FOR FIRE SUPPRESSION
the most popular medium for building fire
suppression is water, which is readily available
and relatively low in cost
water cools, smothers, and dilutes
as it turns to vapor, it removes 970 Btu/lb of
water (2256 kJ/kg) at atmospheric pressure
its volume increases 1700 times—a process
that hinders access to the oxygen needed by
the fire
water has several disadvantages that
sometimes preclude its use for fire
suppression:
it damages most building
contents, including interior
surfaces
as a stream, it conducts
electricity readily (less readily as
a spray)
Steam can harm fire fighters
many flammable oils will float on
water while continuing to burn
STANDPIPES AND HOSES
standpipes and hoses with
a separate water reserve,
upfeed pumping, and/or fire
department connections are
listed in three classes and
five types
the major differences are
whether the system is for
first-aid or full-scale
firefighting
whether the system has an
automatic water supply or a
manual one
 Class I Systems
for full-scale firefighting
typically required in both sprinklered and
unsprinklered buildings more than three
stories high, as well as in malls
this system is for use by trained
firefighters using 2½-in. (64-mm) hose
connections at designated locations
 Class II Systems
are for first-aid
firefighting before the
fire trucks arrive
these systems use 1½-
in. (38-mm) hose
connections and
typically provide access
to a hose, nozzle, and
hose rack in each
specified location
the difficulty for
untrained people to
manage a 100-ft
(30-m) hose containing
a huge flow (100 gpm [378 L/ min] or more)
many fire departments prefer to enforce the
evacuation of the occupants than try to
manage such large hoses and water quantities
significant water damage is a potential threat
when hoses cannot be controlled
 Class III Systems
combine the characteristics of
Classes I and II
serving both for first-aid and for
full-scale firefighting
hose connections of both sizes
are provided (with adapters) at
each specified location
the disadvantages of Class II
systems also apply to Class III
STANDPIPE SYSTEM TYPES
 Automatic-wet systems
the pipes are filled with water and are
connected to a water supply capable of
automatically meeting the firefighting
demands
water flows immediately upon opening of
a hose valve
 Automatic-dry systems
the pipes are filled with pressurized air,
and are connected to a water supply
capable of automatically meeting the
firefighting demands
through a device such as a drypipe valve,
water replaces the air when a hose valve is
opened
Semiautomatic-dry systems
the pipes are filled with air and are
connected to a water supply capable of
automatically meeting the firefighting
demands
through a device such as a deluge valve,
water replaces the air when both a remote
sensing device at the hose station and a
hose valve are opened
 Manual-dry systems

the pipes are filled with air, and there

is no connection to a water supply
system other than that provided by
the fire department
 Manual-wet systems
the pipes are filled with water, with a
connection to a domestic water source that
is used merely to fill and test the system
water for firefighting is provided by the fire
department
minimum flow rates and minimum and
maximum pressure are all addressed
during the design of standpipe systems.
two methods of sizing
pipe schedule
 hydraulic method
Class I and III standpipes not exceeding 100 ft
(30 m) in height must be a minimum of 4 in.
(102 mm) nominal pipe size
Class I and III standpipes more than 100 ft (30
m) in height must be a minimum of 6 in. (152
mm) nominal pipe size (although the topmost
100 ft [30 m] may be a minimum of 4 in. [102
mm] nominal pipe size)
for combined standpipe and sprinkler systems,
regardless of height, a minimum of 6 in. (152
mm) nominal pipe size is required
for Class I and III systems, a minimum
hose pressure of 100 psi (690 kPa) is
now required because of the widespread
use of fog nozzles (rather than stream
nozzles)
the maximum hose pressure (also the
maximum for sprinklers) is 175 psi (1207
kPa)
Sprinkler System
Design
 Sprinkler System Design
already positioned above
the point of a fire and is
capable of being deployed
in seconds
sprinkler systems are
widely relied on as proven
automatic fire suppressers
provision must be made for an adequate water
supply, adequate water pressure, and backup
power for pumping
Alarm Gong
 an alarm gong
mounted on the outside
of the building warns of
water flow through the
alarm valve upon activation
of a sprinkler head
 this warning gives the
building personnel an
opportunity to make
additional firefighting
arrangements that can
minimize loss and speed
the termination of the fire
 Siamese Connections
siamese connections permit fire engines to
pump into the sprinkler system in a
manner similar to that used for standpipe
systems
 Provisions for Drainage
sprinkler heads can release a great deal of
water
in addition to waterproofing the floors and
lower walls, columns, and other elements,
provision should be made, where possible, for
gravity drainage of water
scuppers in exterior walls are preferable to
floor drains, which are more easily clogged by
debris
 Water Supply
 sprinklers (and standpipes) can be supplied with water
from elevated storage tanks used for domestic water
 these tanks supply a constant pressure on the
distribution lines
 provide a dependable fire reserve
 Water to operate 25% of sprinkler heads for 20
minutes
 Sprinkler Construction
common types of sprinkler heads
upright (SSU)
pendant (SSP)
sidewall
 upright heads sit on top of the exposed
supply piping
 pendant heads hang below the piping, which
can then be concealed above suspended
ceilings
 the pendant heads themselves have a number
of variations: recessed, flush, concealed, and
ornamental pendant heads
 sidewall sprinklers are usually located
adjacent to one wall of a smaller room
the spray pattern from a typical
upright or pendant sprinkler
 other special sprinkler models
 extra large orifice - for delivering large
water quantities where water pressures
are relatively low
 multilevel sprinklers - for use where other
sprinklers are at a higher plane within the
same space
 quick-response sprinkler heads - more
thermally sensitive heads open sooner than
ordinary heads, and thus tend to fight a
fire with even fewer heads operating
Source: NFPA 13
 Sprinkler Spacing and Hazard
the spacing of sprinkler heads and the
sizing of supply pipes are complex
matters
guidelines for preliminary sprinkler
location
degree of hazard faced by the
occupants (24.8)
sprinklers and pipes can be
approximately located in plan (24.9)
 Light Hazard Occupancies.
occupancies or portions of other
occupancies where the quantity
and/or combustibility of contents is
low and fires with relatively low
rates of heat release are expected
 Ordinary Hazard Occupancies
 Ordinary Hazard (Group 1).
occupancies or portions of other occupancies where
combustibility is low, quantity of combustibles is
moderate, stockpiles of combustibles do not
exceed 8 ft (2.4 m), and fires with moderate rates of
heat release are expected.
 Ordinary Hazard (Group 2).
occupancies where the quantity and combustibility
of contents are moderate to high, where
stockpiles of contents with moderate rates of heat
release do not exceed 12 ft (3.66 m) and stockpiles
of contents with high rates of heat release do not
exceed 8 ft (2.4 m).
 Extra Hazard Occupancies.
 Extra Hazard (Group 1).
occupancies where the quantity and combustibility
of contents are very high and dust, lint, or other
materials are present, introducing the probability of
rapidly developing fires with high rates of heat
release but with little or no combustible or
flammable liquids.
 Extra Hazard (Group 2).
occupancies with moderate to substantial amounts
of flammable or combustible liquids or
occupancies where shielding of combustibles is
extensive.
within each space, sprinklers should be located so
as to detect a fire readily and to discharge water
over the greatest area
piping for the sprinkler supply can be hydraulically
designed
a complicating factor is the expectation that only
a small percentage of the sprinklers will actually
open
more than 50% of the fires studied over a 49-
year period were extinguished by two or fewer
sprinklers
the expected flow rate vary from 500 to 5000
sprinkler head’s actual performance
sprinkler systems are usually designed for a
maximum working pressure of 175 psi (1206
kPa)
preliminary design guideline:
Light hazard systems need a minimum
residual pressure of 15 psi (104 kPa) and
500–750 gpm (32 to 47 L/s) at the base of
the system riser for 30 to 60 minutes.
Ordinary hazard systems need a minimum
residual pressure of 20 psi (138 kPa) and
850–1500 gpm (54 to 95 L/s) at the base
of the system riser for 60 to 90 minutes.
Sprinkler Types
 Residential Sprinklers
a fast-response device with a tested ability to
enhance survivability in the room of fire origin
sensitive to both smoldering and rapidly
developing fires, opening quickly to fight a
fire with only one or two heads operating
important because residences normally do not
have a water supply with sufficient capacity
for standard sprinkler systems
toxic gases and smoke quickly fill the small
rooms typical of residences; a fast response is
important for life safety
codes that otherwise require residential
sprinklers in all areas make an exception for
bathrooms no larger than 55 ft2 (5.1 m2)
for closets with the least dimension not
exceeding 3 ft (0.9 m)
For open porches, garages, and carports; for
uninhabited attics
for entrance foyers that are not the sole means
of egress
 Quick-Response Sprinklers
all light hazard occupancies are now required
to have quick-response (also called fast-
response) sprinklers
these include hotels, motels, offices, and other
buildings where faster sprinkler operation could
enhance life safety
one measure of thermal sensitivity is the
response time index (RTI), which indicates
how fast the sprinkler can absorb sufficient
heat from its surroundings to cause activation
it is expressed as the square root of meters-seconds
quick-response (fast-response) sprinklers have an
RTI of 50 or less
standard-response sprinklers have an RTI of 80 or
more
conventional automatic sprinklers generally have an
RTI of 250 to 300
because of the thermal lag inherent in the glass bulb
(or fusible link), the sprinkler body, and the water
within sprinkler pipes, air temperature around a
sprinkler may reach 1000ºF (538ºC) before a
standard sprinkler, rated at 175ºF (79ºC), actually
opens
the fast-response sprinkler’s operating element
has a smaller mass, enabling it to respond to
the air temperature rise more quickly
 Early Suppression Fast-Response
(ESFR) Sprinklers
 these sprinkler heads are tested for their ability to
suppress specific high challenge fire hazards
encountered in high-piled storage
 they operate at a higher pressure and flow, and the
water droplets produced depend upon momentum
rather than gravity to penetrate to the bottom of high-
velocity fire plumes
 these sprinkler heads require a minimum water
pressure of 50 psi (345 kPa) and a minimum flow of
100 gpm (6.3 L/s). They have largely replaced large-
drop sprinklers that depended on the weight of the
water droplet to penetrate the fire plume
 Extended Coverage Sprinklers
 these are limited to a type of unobstructed
construction consisting of flat, smooth ceilings of a
slope not exceeding 2 in. per foot (158 mm/m)
 a smooth ceiling means that luminaires and air grilles
are flushed or recessed, not suspended from the
ceiling
 sprinklers can also be specifically listed for
“noncombustible obstructed” construction, or as
upright and pendant sprinklers within trusses or bar
joists having web members not more than 1 in. (25
mm) thick, or where specifically listed for flat, smooth
ceilings of a slope not exceeding 4 in. per foot (316
mm/m)
Sprinkler Systems
 Wet-Pipe Systems
the most common and most simple systems
they are filled with water under pressure and
are limited to spaces in which the air
temperature does not fall below 40ºF (4.4ºC)
in the wet-pipe system, sprinklers in the
affected area are opened by heat-sensitive
elements within the sprinkler heads
themselves and immediately emit water
the typical sprinkler system is served by a
single riser with a main line and branch
lines
two variations that increase reliability
gridded system - each branch is served
from either end, allowing each sprinkler
head to receive water from either
direction in the branch line
loop system - each branch line can
receive water from either direction
 Circulating Closed-Loop Systems
 these wet-pipe systems
use the rather large
sprinkler piping to
circulate water for water
source heat pumps
 water is not normally
removed from this
system, merely circulated
 water temperature in
these systems must not
exceed 120ºF (49ºC) or
fall below 40ºF (4ºC).
 Dry-Pipe Systems
these systems are filled with compressed air
(or nitrogen) rather than with water
they are used in unheated areas
as soon as a sprinkler head opens, the
compressed air rushes out, allowing water to
enter the formerly dry-pipe network through a
dry-pipe valve
the system then functions like a wet-pipe
system
due to the delay in delivering water
throughout a previously dry piping system,
a maximum system capacity of 750 gal
(2839 L) is recommended
dry-pipe systems require a device to
maintain design air pressure within the
pipes
air pressure might be maintained by a
compressor, by an air receiver tank, or by
connection to an existing pressurized air
system
 Preaction Systems
the pipes are filled with air that may or may
not be under pressure
in addition to the sprinkler heads, either a
heat- or a smoke-detection system is
installed
the detectors are more sensitive than the
sprinkler head
Water is held back by the preaction valve
when the heat or smoke detectors are
activated, they open the preaction valve, an
alarm is sounded, and water fills the pipes
the system then functions like a wet-pipe
system, with water flow into a space occurring
only upon the opening of a sprinkler head
preaction systems are popular where the
building’s contents are especially subject to
water damage— computer rooms, retail stores,
museums, and so on—because the early alarm
provided by water filling the piping often
permits the fire to be found and extinguished
manually, before any sprinklers open
 Deluge Systems
these systems have open sprinklers on dry
pipes
as with preaction systems, a separate heat- or
smoke-detection system is installed
the detectors control a deluge valve, which,
once opened, floods the system with water, and
all heads emit water
huge quantities of water are thus released
deluge systems are used where extremely rapid
fire spread is expected or other places where
flammable liquid fires may break out
 Mist Systems
a mist system offers fast initiation of an alarm
as well as more rapid response to a fire
smaller volumes of water mean less water
damage, and the mist can move more easily
around obstructions
mist systems are more tolerant of small
amounts of ventilation, reduce the radiant heat
transfer from a fire, and eliminate the residues
associated with many clean-agent gases
these systems produce a much smaller
water droplet, thanks to inlet pressures
ranging from 45 to 4100 psi (310 to
28,270 kPa), depending upon the design
of the sprinkler head
the heads are typically spaced closer
together and have more sensitive thermal
elements
three classes of mist systems
 Class I mists
 have a droplet size 200 microns, the finest
mists.
achieved at the expense of flow rate and
spray velocity, and requires significant input
of energy to produce useful quantities
these mists are most suitable where
enclosure reduces the need for spray
momentum and fuel wetting is not critical
Class II mists
 have a droplet size from 200 to 400
microns
with larger drops, it is easier to achieve
higher mass flow rates, and
considerable surface wetting is possible
these mists are likely to be effective on
fires involving ordinary combustibles
Class III mists
 have a droplet size from 400 to 1000
microns
they can be generated by small-orifice
sprinklers and fire hose fog nozzles, and
deliver the highest mass flow rates
 Planning Guidelines
1. The maximum floor area of the building
that can be protected by a single system
shall not exceed 52,000 sq ft for hazards
classified as light or ordinary. The
maximum area is reduced for extra-hazard
classified buildings.
2. The maximum floor area that can be
covered by a sprinkler shall not exceed
that given by Table 24.9
3. In addition to the maximum floor area limitation,
sprinklers shall meet the following dimensional
limitations:
 The maximum distance between sprinklers
shall be no more than 15 ft for light and
ordinary hazards and 12 ft for extra
ordinary hazards and above, except that
spacing of side-wall type sprinklers may be
according to the approved area of coverage.
 When sprinklers are spaced less than 6 ft on
centers, baffles shall be located between the
sprinklers to prevent nonactivated sprinklers
from being cooled off by the water discharged
from adjacent sprnklers.
The distance of a sprinkler from a wall
shall be no more than half of the
allowed distance between sprinklers or
less than 4 in. from a wall.
The distance between vertical
obstructions and the sprinkler shall not
be less than that given in Table 24.9.
 System Design Approaches
 Pipe Schedule Method
traditional method permitted for new light- and
ordinary-hazard occupancies of 5,000 sq ft or less
for modernization of existing systems design by
the pipe schedule
the size of branches and risers can be determined
from a pipe schedule, assuming that other
requirements, such as residual pressure and flow
rates, are all in compliance with Codes
In general, the pipe schedule yields more
conservative pipe sizes
Pipe schedule for number of sprinklers allowed in a sprinkler system

Hazard Classification
Pipe size, Light Ordinary
in. Steel Copper Steel Copper

1 2 2 2 2
1¼ 3 3 3 3
1½ 5 5 5 5
2 10 12 10 12
2½ 30 40 20 25
3 60 65 40 45
3½ 100 115 65 75
4 a a 100 115
5 160 180
6 275 300
8 b b
a
One 4-in. system may serve up to 52,000 sq ft of floor area
b
One 8-in. system may serve up to 52,000 sq ft of floor area
Source: NFPA 13
 Hydraulic Method
 the hydraulic method actually calculates the pipe
size of the entire piping system based on
distribution of sprinklers
developed length
fitting losses
size and location of areas within the building
water density and pressure required
Hydraulic Calculation Procedure

Determine the building hazard

classification and the allowed maximum
sprinkler protection area. (Table 24.9)
Determine the water demand for the
sprinkler system and the hose stream
system.
Determine the pressure available from the
water supply source by a flow test at the
street main or storage system.
Determine the required flow rate and
pressure of the end head (last
sprinkler).
Calculate the residual pressure
available from the end head to the
water supply main, the required total
pressure, and the average pressure
loss (psi/ft), including the loss through
pipe fittings.
 The sizes of branches, cross-mains, ceiling
mains, and underground mains can be
determined from the standard chart of
friction loss versus flow rate for the
selected piping material, the calculated
flow rate (total demand in gpm), the
maximum water velocity, and/or selected
friction loss