Dr. dr. Susianti, M.

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 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 The respiratory system includes the lungs,

airways (pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi) and associated structures.
 Specialized for gaseous exchange between
blood and air, including the uptake of
oxygen and release of carbon dioxide.
 A. COMPONENTS OF RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Functionally divisible into 3 major part:
1. Ventilating mechanism
 Creates pressure differences that move air
into (inspiration) and out of (expiration)
the lungs.
 Includes:diaphragm, rib cage, intercostal
muscles, abdominal muscles lower the
floor of the thorac cavity
2. Conducting Portion
 The wall is specialized to carry air to and
from the site of gas exchange
 Conditioning the air, warming,
moistening, and cleaning it to enhance
gas exchange
 Includes: nasal cavity, nasopharynx,
larynx, trache, bronchi, bronchioles,
terminal bronchioles
3. Respiratory portion
 Distinguished by alveoli:small, saccular
structures, whose thin walls enable the
gas exchange between air and blood.
 Bronchial tree: respiratory brochioles,
alveolar ducts, and atrial and alveolar
sacs
Structure of the Respiratory System
 B. WALL STRUCTURE

 Tube lining epithelium derives from

endoderm
 Wall layers: epithelium, lamina propria,
smooth muscles, adventitia
 Each layer undergoes gradual changes:
nasal cavity  alveoli
1. Respiratory epithelium
 General features: Most epithelium is
ciliated pseudostratified collumnar with
goblet cells
 Epithelial cell types:
 Ciliated columnar cell
 Mucous goblet
 Brush cells
 Small granule cells
2. Lamina Propria
 Loose connective tissue
 Skeletal connective tissue, gradually
decreases-disappears at the level of the
bronchioles.
3. Smooth Muscle
 Begin in the trachea, joins the open ends
of the tracheal cartilages
 Gradually decrease-disappears at the
level of the alveolar ducts
 NASAL CAVITY

 The cavity is divided by the nasal septum

into 2 bilaterally symmetric cavities, open
through the nares (nostrils)
 Each cavity consists of:
 Vestibule
 Nasal fossa
Nasal Mucosa
 A. VESTIBULE

 Smaller, wider, and more anterior chamber,

lies behind nares
 Medial septum and lateral walls are
supported by cartilage, and the epithelial
lining is a continuation of the epidermis
(sebaceous and sweat glands, thick short
hairs called vibrissae)
 Deeper: nonkeratinized epithelium
respiratory epithelium
 B. NASAL FOSSA
 Larger, narrower, and more posterior
 Septum and lateral walls are lined by
respiratory epithelium
 Supported by bone and contain mucous
glands and venous sinuses in the lamina
propria
 Three curved bony shelves, termed
conchae (turbinate bones)
 Venous plexuses (swell bodies)
Nasal Cavity
 PARANASAL SINUSES

 They are dilated cavities in the frontal,

maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
 Thin respiratory epithelial, has few goblet
cells
 Lamina propria contains a few small
mucous glands
 NASOPHARYNX
 The upper part of pharynx
 Single cavity overlying the soft
palate
 Anteriorly: nassal fossae
 Inferiorly: oral part of the
pharynx (oropharynx)
 The wall lined by respiratory
epithelium are supported by
bone and skeletal muscle
 LARYNX

 Lies in the neck

 During swallowing, its opening is protected
by epiglottis
 Its walls, supported by several laryngeal
cartilages in the lamina propria, contain
skeletal muscle and house the vocal
apparatus
 A. EPIGLOTTIS

 The flap of the tissue extends toward the

oropharynx from the anterior border of the
larynx
 Superior surface: Nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
 Inferior surface: Respiratory epithelium
 Lamina propria: A few mucous glands and
small plate of elastic cartilage
 B. LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES

 Several frame the laryngeal lumen

 The larger: Thyroid, cricoid, and the most of
the paired arytenoid cartilage are hyaline
 The smaller: The paired of the cuneiform
and corniculate, the epiglottic, and the tips
of the arytenoids are elastic
 C. VOCAL APPARATUS
Two bilaterally symmetric pairs of mucosal folds
1. False vocal cords (Vestibular folds)
 The upper
 Covered by respiratory epithelium and contain
serous glands
2. True vocal cords
 The lower
 Covered by stratified squamous epithelium
 2 major structure: vocal ligament and vocalis
muscle
 TRACHEA

 Tube: 10 cm long, between larynx and

primary bronchi
 Lined by respiratory epithelium
 Lamina propria: mixed seromucous glands
 Characteristic: 16-20 C-shape cartilage rings
 Fibroelastic ligament
 Smooth muscle bundle (trachealis muscle)
TRACHEA
Trachea
 BRONCHIAL TREE
A. PRIMARY BRONCHI
 Two primary bronchi, entering each lung
 Similar to the trachea, but cartilage rings
and spiral bands of smooth muscle
completely encircle their respective
lumens
 Right primary bronchi: more vertical than
that of the left
Bronchus
Primary Bronchus
 B. SECONDARY BRONCHI

 Lobar bronchi
 Primary bronchus give rise:
 Right primary bronchus: 3 secondary bronchi
 Left primary bronchus: 2 secondary bronchi

 Histologic structure= primary bronchi,

except that their supporting cartilages are
arranged as irregular plates or islands
 C. TERTIARY BRONCHI

 Segmental bronchi
 Supplies one bronchopulmonary segment
(pulmonary lobule)
 Histologic appearance is identical to that
of secondary bronchi
 Branch several times to form smaller
branches
Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchus
 D. BRONCHIOLES
 Branches of the smallest bronchi
 Largest bronchioles differ from the smallest
bronchi: absence of the cartilage and glands in
their walls
 Large bronchioles:typical respiratory epithelium
 Further: epithelial height and complexity
decrease to simple ciliated columnar or
cuboidal
 Each bronchiole gives rise to 5-7 terminal
bronchiole
 Bronchiolus

Vein

M : Smooth muscle layer

Terminal bronchiole Respiratory
bronchiole

Alveolar walls
 E. TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
 The smallest components of the conducting
portion
 Lined by ciliated cuboidal or columnar
epithelium, have few or no goblet cells
 Lining also: dome-shaped cilia-free Clara
cells
 Each terminal bronchiole branches to form
2 or more respiratory bronchioles
 F. RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES

 The first part of respiratory portion

 Lined by cuboidal epithelial
 Interrupted by thin-walled saccular
evaginations called alveoli
 As the alveoli increase in number, the cilia
decrease untill they disappear. Goblet cells
are absent
 G. ALVEOLAR DUCTS

 The distal extensions of the respiratory

bronchiole where the alveoli are so dense
 The alveolar duct can thus be likened to a
long hallway with so many doorways
leading to small rooms (alveoli) that the
hallway (alveolar duct) appears almost to
lack walls.
 H. ATRIA AND ALVEOLAR SACS

 Atria: the distal termination of

alveolarducts
 Long hallway (alveolar duct) leading to a
rounded foyer (atrium). The foyer has
small doorways leading to some small
Rooms (alveoli), but has 2 or more larger
doorways leading into short, dead-end
hallways (alveolar sacs)
Terminal Portion of the Respiratory Tree
 ALVEOLI
A. INTERALVEOLAR SEPTA
 Specialized for gas exchange, are critical
to respiratory function.
 Consist of 2 simple squamous epithelial
layers with the interstitium sandwiche
between them, that consist of continous
capillaries embedded in n elastic
connective tissue
Gas exchange: Between the air in the alveolar
lumen and the blood in the interstitial capillaries
1. Blood- air barrier
 Structure that oxygen and CO2 must exchanged
 0.1-0.5 m in thickness
 Includes: - Pulmonary surfactant
- type I alveolar cells
- Basal laminae??
2. Alveolar Pores
 Each septum may be interrupted by one or more
pores from 10-15 m in diameter
 B. ALVEOLAR CELL TYPES
1. Type I cells
 Called type I alveolar cells, type I
pneumocytes,squamous alveolar cells
 Squamous epithelial cells: 97% alveolar surface
 Very thin (25 nm) gas permeable components
2. Type II cells
 Called type II alveolar cells, type II pneumocytes,
great alveolar cells, alveolar septal cells
 Are roughly cuboidal with round nuclei
 Large (0.2 m) membrane-limited lamellar bodies
 Secretes pilmonary surfactant
3. Alveolar macrophages
 Called dust cells
 Mononuclear phagocyte system on the surface of
the alveolar septa and in the intersitium
Alveoli
Three-dimensional schematic diagram of pulmonary alveoli showing the interalveolar
septum and its structure. Observe the capillaries, connective tissue, and macrophages.
These can also be seen in – or passing into – the alveolar lumens. Alveolar pores are
numerous. Type II cells are identified by their abundant apical microvilli. The alveoli
are lined by a continuous epithelial layer of Type I cells.
 C. PULMONARY SURFACTANT
 Continously synthesized and secreted by
type II alveolar cells onto the alveolar
surface
 2 Function:
 Reduce surface tension in the alveoli
 Have some bactericidal effects

 2 layer:
 Aqueous basal layer (hypophase)
 Monomolecular fill of phospholipid (dipalmitoyl
lecithin)
 PULMONARY CIRCULATION

A. BLOOD SUPPLY
1. Functional circulation
a. Pulmonary arteries
b. Pulmonary veins
2. Systemic circulation
a. Bronchial arteries
b. Bronchial veins
 B. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE

 Divided into superficial and deep networks

 Vessels of the superficial network which
have many valves, are found in the
visceral pleura
 Lymphatic vessels are notably absent from
interalveolar septa
 INNERVATION

 Autonomic motor and general sensory

nerves penetrate the pulmonary root
 Sensory nerves: localized pain sensations,
monitor irritants in the airway and are
involved in the cough reflex
 Parasymphatic motor fibers (branches of
vagus nerve ) stimulate bronchial
constriction, symphatic: bronchial dilation
 PLEURA
 Serous membrane
 2 layers:
 Covering the lungs (visceral pleura)
 Covering the internal wall of the thoracic
cavity (parietal pleura)
 Consist of thin squamous mesothelium,
thin layer of connective tissue
 Pleural cavity: between visceral and
parietal pleura, contain lubricating fluid
Visceral Pleura