Glycolysis, The Krebs Cycle and

The Electron Transport Chain

Cambridge International
Examinations: A Level Biology
Brief Outline of the Stages of Respiration
o Glycolysis: splitting of sugar
• What? – The formation of pyruvic acid from glucose
• Where? – Cytoplasm of a cell

o The Krebs Cycle

• What? – The removal of hydrogen from pyruvic acid
• Where? – Matrix of the mitochondria

o Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation

• What? – Using hydrogen to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
• Where? – Inner mitochondrial membrane
 Oxidation
• Oxidation is:
– The addition of oxygen
– The removal of hydrogen
– Or the loss of electrons
• Reduction is:
– The addition of hydrogen
– The removal of oxygen
– Or the gain of electrons
o OILRIG
• A lot of the reactions in the stages of respiration involve oxidation through
the removal of electrons or hydrogen atoms
• These are transferred to electron/hydrogen carriers
• Lastly they are chemically bonded with oxygen to form water in the very
last stage of respiration
 Glycolysis
• Glucose is phosphorylated twice (two phosphate (PO4) groups are added)
to make a 6C (carbon) sugar phosphate
• 2 ATP’s are used to provide the phosphates
• This makes the glucose more reactive
• So, the 6C sugar phosphate breaks down into 2 3C sugar phosphates
called triose phosphates (TP)
• Hydrogen is removed from each of the 2 TP molecules
• The hydrogens are passed to 2 NAD (nicotinamine adenine dinucleotide)
molecules
• 2 ATP’s are made directly from the conversion of each TP to pyruvic acid
as the phosphate groups are removed
 Into and Out of Glycolysis
Into Glycolysis Out of Glycolysis
• 1 Glucose • 2 pyruvic acids
molecule (6C) (3C)
• 2 NAD molecules • 2 reduced NAD
• 2 ATP molecules molecules (2
NADH + H⁺)
• 4 ATP molecules
 The Link Reaction
• The pyruvic acid (PA) molecules enter the
mitchondrion
• CO₂ and hydrogen are removed from each PA
to create two 2C molecules
• The hydrogen is transferred to NAD
• The 2C molecule is then combined with
coenzyme A (CoA) to form the 2C compound:
acetylCoA
 Into and Out of The Link Reaction
Into Link Reaction Out of Link Reaction
• 2 pyruvic acids • 2 Acetyl CoA
• 2 CoA • 2 CO₂
• Glucose • 2 reduced NAD
• 2 NAD
molecules (2 NADH + H⁺
 The Krebs Cycle
• Also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarbolyxic acid cycle
• For each glucose molecule there were 2 pyruvic acid molecules formed
and 2 acetyl CoA molecules
• So the whole cycle takes place twice for every glucose molecule respired
1. Each acetyl CoA (2C) combines with an oxaloacetic acid (4C) to make a 6C
compound: citric acid
2. In a series of steps, for each 6C compound:
1. 3 NAD molecules are reduced
2. 1 FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is reduced
3. 1 ATP molecule is made directly
3. The 4C compound is regenerated (by the removal of the 2C’s in 2 CO₂
molecules) so that the cycle can begin again with more molecules of
acetyl CoA
 Into and Out of Krebs Cycle
Into Krebs Cycle
• 2 acetyl CoA Out of Krebs Cycle
• Hydrogen • 2 oxaloacetate
molecules
• 6 NAD molecules
• 4 CO₂ molecules
• 2 FAD molecules
• 6 reduced NAD
• 2 ADP + P
(6 NADH + H⁺)
• 2 reduced FAD
(2 FADH + H⁺)
• 2 ATP molecules
 Molecule Tracking
• So far we have in total from 1
glucose molecule:
–4 ATP molecules that have
been made directly
–10 reduced NAD’s
–2 reduced FAD’s
 The Electron Transport Chain/
Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Now all the hydrogen from the reduced hydrogen carriers (NAD and FAD) enters a chain of reactions which ultimately yields
energy in the form of ATP
• Each hydrogen atoms splits into its constituent H⁺ (hydrogen ion) and electron
• The electron is the part that actually gets passed down the chain from carrier to carrier
• The H⁺ remains in the mitochondrial matrix
• The electron carriers are at successively lower energy levels so as the electron moves from one carrier to the next, some
energy is released
• This energy is used to pump H⁺ from the matrix into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membrane
• So the H⁺ from the matrix goes into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membrane
• So the H⁺ concentration there increases forming a concentration gradient
• This means that the H⁺ ions have electric potential energy
• H⁺ then flows back down the gradient into the matrix through protein channels
• Associated with each channel is an enzyme – ATP synthase
• As the H⁺ ions flow through, their energy is used to make ATP
• This theory about how ATP is actually made is called the chemiosmotic theory
• Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in the chain
• So, the oxygen, electrons and hydrogen ions form water
• For every reduced NAD
– 3 ATP
• For every reduced FAD
– 2 ATP
 Molecule Tracking
• Now in total we have made 38
molecules of ATP
• However this only happens in
the most favourable conditions –
in reality slightly less are made