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13

Training and Development

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Human Resource Management, 10/e © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
13-3
Introduction
Training and development are processes that
provide employees with:
Information
Skills
An understanding of the organization and its goals
The ability to make positive contributions in the form
of good performance
13-4
Introduction
Orientation is designed to start the employee in a
direction that is compatible with the firm’s:
Mission
Goals
Culture

Orientation is also used to:

Explain what the organization stands for
Explain the type of work that will be performed
Introduce employees to managers and work groups
13-5
Introduction
Newness anxiety is caused by:
Not knowing what to expect
Having to cope with a major life change (the job)
Feeling unsure about the future

A good orientation program can:

Make the first few days a positive experience
Get the employee on the right track
Start him/her off with a positive attitude

Different levels of orientation may be required

13-6
Introduction

Anyorientation is designed to make the person:

More comfortable
More knowledgeable
Ready to work within the firm’s culture, structures,
and employee mix
13-7
Introduction to Orientation
The orientation process is similar to socialization
The established group communicates systematic sets
of expectations for how newcomers should behave
People undergoing socialization respond both
cognitively and emotionally
They receive and try to understand the cultural
messages being sent
If the messages are not understood or accepted,
they must invent their own behaviors
13-8
Goals of Orientation
Clear messages that are understood and accepted
can achieve a number of orientation goals, including:
Reducing anxiety
Reducing turnover
Saving time
Developing realistic expectations
13-9
Who Orients New Employees?
In smaller organizations, operating managers
usually do the orienting
In unionized organizations, union officials are
involved
HRM helps train the operating manager for more
effective orientation
13-10
How Orientation Works
Orientation programs vary from informal to formal:
Informal orientations are often oral
Formal orientations often include:
A tour of the facilities or slides, charts, and
pictures of them
A systematic and guided procedure
13-11
How Orientation Works
Guidelines for an orientation program:
Begin with the most relevant and immediate kinds of
information, then move to more general policies
Devote significant time to the human side
Assign an experienced worker or supervisor to
“sponsor” the new employee
Gradually introduce new workers to the people with
whom they will work
Allow new employees sufficient time to get their feet
on the ground before increasing their job demands
13-12
Orientation Follow-Up
The final phase of orientation is assigning the new
employee to the job
The supervisor takes over and continues the
orientation
Ensure adequate orientation with a feedback system
A job information form could transmit feedback from
the trainee back to the company
A follow-up meeting with the orientation group
allows evaluation of the employee’s adjustment and
the success of the orientation program
13-13
Introduction to Training
Training is the systematic process of altering
employee behavior in a way that will achieve
organizational goals
It should be related to present job skills and abilities
It has a current orientation
It helps employees master the specific skills and
abilities needed to be successful
13-14
Introduction to Training
A training program is an opportunity for employees
to acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge
Learning is the act by which an individual acquires
skills, knowledge, and abilities that result in a
relatively permanent change in behavior
Any behavior that has been learned is a skill
Motor, cognitive, and interpersonal skills are training
targets
13-15
Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is a process used to determine if,
and what type of, training is necessary
Organizational analysis: examining a firm’s mission,
resources, and goals
Person analysis: determining who needs training and
their readiness for training
Task analysis: identification of the tasks, knowledge,
skill, and behaviors that should be included in a
training program
13-16
Needs Assessment
A needs assessment is conducted through:
Interviews
Surveys
Reviews of records
Observation
Discussions with management and SMEs
13-17
Needs Assessment
The information gathering provides a profile of:
What type of training is needed
Who should be trained
When training should be conducted
Whether training is the preferred approach

Instructional objectives lead to the selection and

design of instructional programs:
If assessment and program design are done carefully,
training and development can be monitored and
evaluated
13-18
Goals of Training
Important goals of training:
Training validity
Transfer validity
Intra-organizational validity
Inter-organizaitonal validity

The goals result in evaluation procedures to

determine what the training and development
accomplished
13-19
Learning Theory and Training
Learning principles can be applied to job training:
The trainee must be motivated to learn
The trainee must be able to learn
The learning must be reinforced
The training must provide for practice of the material
The material presented must be meaningful
The material must be communicated effectively
The training taught must transfer to the job
13-20
Learning Organizations
In The Fifth Discipline, Peter Senge described
learning organizations as places where:
People continually expand their capacity to create
the results they desire
New and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured
Collective aspiration is set free
People are continually learning how to learn together
13-21
Learning Organizations
Learning organizations are proficient in a number
of activities
Systematic problem solving
Experimentation with new approaches
Learning from their own experience and history
Learning from the experiences and best practices
of others
Transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently
throughout the organization
13-22
Learning Organizations
Learning in firms such as Xerox and General
Electric has a three-stage learning perspective:
Cognitive
Behavioral
Improvement of performance

Learning organizations do not simply appear

Encouraging learning is essential
13-23
Training Activities
Instructor-led training is the preferred and
dominant method of delivering training, followed by:
Public seminars
Case studies
Performance support
Web-based self-study
Role playing

Use of the Internet, intranet, and extranet has

increased each year for the past five years
13-24
Training Activities

These types of training rely heavily on e-learning

and traditional classroom methods:
Computer systems/applications
Computer systems/programming
Technological skills/knowledge
Management skills/development
13-25
Training Activities
The consensus accounting model of the American
Society for Training and Development helps assess
the costs/benefits of training and development
The consensus model has four steps:
Establish a definition of training
Determine all training cost categories
Calculate training costs
Code the costs

Costs include such things as trainer salaries, lost

work time, materials, travel, and accommodations
13-26
Training Needs and Objectives
Needs assessment involves analyzing:
The organization’s needs
The knowledge, skill, and ability
needed to perform the job
The person or jobholder’s needs
The firm’s long- and short-term
objectives
13-27
Training Needs and Objectives
These things are also typically reviewed:
Objectives
Ratios
Organization charts
Historical records on absenteeism
Quality of production
Efficiency
Performance appraisals

Employee needs must also be considered

13-28
Training Needs and Objectives

To determine employee training needs:

Observe
Listen
Talk to supervisors
Examine the problems employees have

Gaps between expected and actual results suggests

a need for training
13-29
Performance Analysis Steps
Insert Exhibit 13-5 here
13-30
Performance Analysis
A performance analysis may reveal that training is
not the best solution
If this is the case, other solutions will surface during
the performance analysis
If training is needed, establish specific, measurable
training objectives
If possible, training objectives should be expressed in
behavioral terms
If behaviors can’t be identified, training may not be
justified
13-31
Choosing Trainers and Trainees
Success of the training program also depends on the
trainer, who should be able to:
Speak well
Write convincingly
Organize the work of others
Be inventive
Inspire others to greater achievements

Analyzing needs and developing a training program

is done by company trainers or outside consultants
13-32
Choosing Trainers and Trainees
Managers can also be good trainers:
This is especially true if technical skills are involved
Qualified trainers can help prepare training materials
This overcomes the frequent criticism that the
training won’t work back on the job
Principles of learning to follow:
Provide time for practice
Require practice and repetition
Communicate the material effectively
13-33
Instructional Methods

This phase of training includes:

Selection of content and training methods
The actual training
13-34
On-The-Job Training
This is the most widely used method of training
Although OJT is simple and relatively inexpensive,
hidden costs can include:
Damaged machinery
Unsatisfied customers
Misfiled forms
Poorly taught workers
13-35
On-The-Job Training
Trainers should be:
Placed with a trainee who is similar in background
and personality
Motivated
Rewarded
Effective

During WWII, a systematic on-the-job training

system was developed
Trainers first trained supervisors
The supervisors then trained the employees
13-36
Case Method
The case method uses a written description of a real
decision-making situation
Managers are asked to study the case in order to:
Identify the problems
Analyze the problems
Propose solutions
Choose the best solution
Implement it

More learning takes place if there is interaction

with the instructor
13-37
Case Method
When using the case method, guard against:
Dominating the discussion
Permitting a few people to dominate the discussion
Leading the discussion toward a preferred solution

As a catalyst, the instructor should:

Encourage divergent viewpoints
Initiate discussion on points the managers are missing
Be thoroughly prepared
13-38
Incident Method
With the incident method:
The outline of a problem is given
Students are given a role in the incident
More data are given if the right questions are asked
Each student solves the case, and groups based on
similarity of solutions are formed
Each group formulates a statement of position
The groups then debate or role-play their solutions
The instructor describes what actually happened in
the case and the consequences
The groups compare their solutions with the results
13-39
Role Playing
Role-playing is a cross between the case method and
an attitude development program
Each person is assigned a role in a situation and is
asked to react to other players’ role-playing
The player is asked to react to the stimuli as that
person would
Players are provided with background information
on the situation and the players
A script is usually provided
13-40
Role Playing
The success of this method depends on the ability of
the players to play the assigned roles believably
Role-playing can help a manager become more aware
of, and more sensitive to, the feelings of others
13-41
Case Study vs. Role Play
13-42
In-Basket Technique
The participant is given typical items from a specific
manager’s mail, email, and telephone list
Important and pressing matters are mixed in with
routine business matters
The trainee is analyzed and critiqued on:
The number of decisions made in the time allotted
The quality of the decisions
The priorities chosen for making them

To generate interest, in-basket materials must be:

Realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make
decisions on
13-43
Management Games
Management games describe the operating
characteristics of a company, industry, or enterprise
The descriptions take the form of equations that are
manipulated after decisions are made
These games emphasize development of problem-
solving skills
Examples of games:
Looking Glass
Simmons Simulator, Inc.
Financial Services Industry
13-44
Management Games
Advantages of the games:
Integration of several interacting decisions
Ability to experiment with decisions
Provision of feedback on decisions
Requirement that decisions be made with inadequate
data
13-45
Management Games
Criticisms of the games:
Limited novelty or reactivity in decision making
The cost of development and administration
The unreality of some of the models
Participants tend to look for the key to winning the
game instead of focusing on good decision making
Many participants feel the games are rigged; too few,
or even a single factor, may be the key to winning
13-46
Behavior Modeling

Behavior modeling is also called:

Interaction management
Imitating models

Modeling is a “vicarious process” that emphasizes

observation
13-47
Behavior Modeling
One approach begins by identifying interpersonal
problems that managers face:

Gaining acceptance Setting performance goals

Handling discrimination Motivating average performance
Delegating responsibility Handling emotional situations
Improving attendance Reducing tardiness
Disciplining effectively Taking corrective action
Overcoming resistance
to change
13-48
Behavior Modeling
 There are four steps in this process:
Modeling of effective behavior (films)
Role playing
Social reinforcement (role playing)
Transfer of training to the job

 Modeling offers promise for developing leadership

skills, if used in conjunction with videotape methods
Research evidence is generally positive
13-49
Outdoor-Oriented Programs
Outdoor, action-oriented programs are becoming
increasingly popular
Leadership, teamwork, and risk-taking are top-
priority items in these programs
Popular types of outdoor training include:
River rafting
Mountain climbing
Night searching
Team competition
Boat races
Rope climbing
13-50
Outdoor-Oriented Programs
Program popularity is based on the opinion that:
They are action packed
Participants like them
They involve healthy exercise

Little research shows these programs are effective

Critics also question whether an organization has the
right to encourage or require participation in such
programs
13-51
Which Approach Should be Used?
The choice should be based on:
How many managers need to be developed
Relative costs per manager for each method
Availability of development materials
The instructor’s capabilities
Employees’ learning efficiency and motivation

If there are only a few instructors, individualized

programmed instruction may be considered
Outside instructors, movies, or videotapes may also
be used
13-52
Which Approach Should be Used?
The techniques of behaviorism include:
Behavioral modeling
Role playing
Positive reinforcement
Simulations

Preferred techniques include:

Self-assessment
Visualization
Guided reflection
13-53
Which Approach Should be Used?
Advocates of cognitive approaches recommend:
Lectures
Discussion
Readings
Debates

Simpler tasks, like word processing or filing, are

learned efficiently by behaviorist techniques
More complex tasks often require cognitive and
humanistic approaches
13-54
Three Approaches to Knowledge
13-55
On-The-Job Training for Managers
On-the-job management training is relevant and
immediately transferable to the job
Three widely used approaches to manager OJT:
Coaching and counseling
Transitory anticipatory experiences
Transfers and rotation
13-56
Coaching and Counseling Key Points
Effective managers teach new ones
He/she answers questions and explains why things are
done the way they are
The manager-trainee is introduced to the proper
contacts
The coach-superior and manager-trainee relationships
resemble the buddy system in employee training
If a trainee is to learn, he/she must have enough
authority to make decisions and/or mistakes
Appropriately chosen committee assignments can be
used as a form of coaching and counseling
13-57
Coaching and Counseling Key Points
Coaching is likely to fail when:
There is inadequate time for coaching and counseling
The subordinate isn’t allowed to make mistakes
A rivalry develops
The dependency needs of the subordinate are not
recognized or accepted by the superior
Proponents contend that:
Coaching and counseling, coupled with planned
rotation through jobs and functions, are effective
techniques
13-58
Transitory Anticipatory Experiences
This process allows a person to perform most duties
of the old job while learning duties of the new one
This arrangement is also called:
Assistant understudy
Multiple management
Management apprenticeship

In some approaches, the trainee performs part

of the job for the incumbent
13-59
Transitory Anticipatory Experiences
In multiple management:
Several decision-making bodies make decisions about
the same problem and then compare them
A variation is to provide trainees with a series of
assignments that are part of the new job
Transitory anticipatory experiences provide a
reasonable approach to management development
Little systematic study has been made of the
effectiveness of this approach, however
It is used less often than coaching or counseling
13-60
Transfers and Rotation
Trainees are rotated through a series of jobs to
broaden their managerial experience
Organizations often have programmed career plans
that include functional and geographic transfers
Advocates contend that this approach:
Broadens the manager’s background
Accelerates the promotion of competent individuals
Introduces more new ideas into the organization
Increases the effectiveness of the organization
13-61
Transfers and Rotation
Some research questions these conclusions:
Individual differences affect whether the results
will be positive
Generalists may not be the most effective managers
in specialized positions
Geographic transfers are desirable when
fundamentally different jobs exist at various places
13-62
Transfers and Rotation
In general, on-the-job experience should be provided
in management development programs
Off-the-job development programs should
supplement it where expertise is not available inside
the organization
Using on-the-job programs exclusively leads to a
narrow perspective and inhibits new ideas
13-63
Off-The-Job Training
Organizations with the biggest training programs
often use off-the-job training
Programmed instruction: most effective if knowledge
is the objective
Case method: improves problem-solving skills

Most popular off-the-job methods:

Lecture-discussion, supplemented with audiovisual
Programmed instruction
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
13-64
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Advantages of CAI:
Allows trainees to learn at their own pace
Trainees can study areas that need improvement
Flexibility
Learning is more self-initiated and individualized

The Internet offers ways to:

Increase learning
Link resources
Share knowledge inside and outside an organization
13-65
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Training can be delivered in these ways, individually
or in combination with other instruction methods:
E-mail
Bulletin boards, forums, and newsgroups
Interactive, online tutorials and courses
Real-time conferencing
13-66
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Intranets are internal, proprietary electronic
networks, similar to the Internet
An intranet facilitates delivery of training materials
Intranets can also support CD-ROM-based training

HRM practitioners and trainers should have a

working knowledge of multimedia technology
Learning is enhanced with audio, animation,
graphics, and interactive video
It lets trainees retrieve information when they want it,
and in the way that makes the most sense to them
13-67
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Multimedia-based training (MBT) is an interactive
learning experience
It incorporates either CD-ROM or World Wide Web
technology (via Internet or intranet)
Virtual reality (VR) enables users to learn in a
three-dimensional environment
One interacts in real time with simulations by
viewing a computer screen or using a head-mounted
display
This can replace sending employees to training
centers, which is difficult and expensive
13-68
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Distance training, or distance learning, is also called
“just-in-time training”
Trainers are evolving into facilitators, guides, and
mentors
The goal of the corporate trainer should now be to
find, interpret, and assess information and
technologically sophisticated products
13-69
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Large companies and the U.S.
government have become high-tech
training trendsetters
The government has used
information-sharing technology
for years
Distance-learning is cost-efficient/effective because:
Various agencies don’t have to reinvent the wheel
Agencies can share data and training materials
through electronic government learning gateways
13-70
What is Management Development?
Development that uses behavioral science knowledge
to deal with problems of change
It is a continuous process in the most effective firms

Management development should be planned

because it requires:
Systematic diagnosis
Development of a program
The mobilization of resources
Top-management commitment for success

There is no best development approach

13-71
Individual Development Techniques

Development techniques can be classified on the

basis of the target area they are intended to affect:
Individual
Groups
Organizational
13-72
Goal Setting
Goal setting is designed to improve an individual’s
ability to set and achieve goals
Behavioral modification is the use of individual
learning through reinforcement
Team building focuses on the group
Total quality management (TQM) targets the
organizational as a whole
13-73
Goal Setting
A goal is the object of an action
Locke proposes that goal setting is a cognitive
process of some practical utility
Intent plays a prominent role in Locke’s theory
Harder conscious goals result in higher levels of
performance, if these goals are accepted by the
individual
13-74
The Goal-Setting Process
Locke’s attributes of the cognitive processes of goal
setting:
Specificity
Difficulty
Intensity

Specific goals lead to higher output than vague goals,

such as “Do your best”
In 99 out of 100 studies, specific goals produced
better results
13-75
The Goal-Setting Process
The key steps in goals setting:
Diagnosis
Preparing employees for goal setting via increased
interpersonal interaction, communication, training,
and action plans
Emphasizing the attributes of goals that should be
understood by a manager and subordinates
Conducting intermediate reviews to make necessary
adjustments in established goals
Performing a final review to check the goals set,
modified, and accomplished
13-76
Individual Differences and Goal Setting
Multiple studies examined the effects of individual
differences on the goal-setting process:
A study of electronics technicians found that goal
difficulty was related to performance only for
technicians with 12 or more years of education
A field study found that participative goal setting
affected only the performance of less educated
loggers
13-77
Individual Differences and Goal Setting
A study of white-collar employees examined three
explanations of why participation in goal setting
leads to improved job performance:
A social factor (group discussion)
A motivational factor (involved in the goal-setting)
A cognitive factor (sharing information)

The social and motivational factors increased:

Quantity of performance, learning the task, goal
acceptance, group commitment, and satisfaction
13-78
Individual Differences and Goal Setting
Another study examined race as a variable
Goal clarity and goal feedback were related to
performance for African-Americans only
Goal difficulty was related to performance for
whites only
Researchers proposed that clarity and feedback
affected African-Americans because they had a
higher need for security
13-79
Criticisms of Goal Setting
Arguments against goal setting:
Goal setting is complex and difficult to sustain
It works well for simple jobs, but not for jobs in
which goals are not easily measured
It encourages game playing
It is used as a control device to monitor performance
Accomplishment of goals can become an obsession

Under the right conditions, goal setting can be

a powerful motivation technique
Employees must set and strive for specific, relatively
hard goals
13-80
Organizational Behavior Modification
The basic assumption of operant conditioning is that
behavior is influenced by its consequences
B. E. Skinner’s work with animals led to the term
operant conditioning
The more common term is behavior modification
OBM is “individual learning through reinforcement”

Organizational behavior modification is a more

general term that means:
The systematic reinforcement of desirable
organizational behavior and the non-reinforcement
or punishment of unwanted behavior
13-81
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is an important principle of learning
Motivation is an internal cause of behavior;
reinforcement is an external cause
Positive reinforcement is anything that increases the
strength of response and induces repetition of the
behavior
Without reinforcement, no measurable modification
of behavior takes place
13-82
Reinforcement

In some cases, positive reinforcers work as

predicted; in others they do not
When reinforcers are not contingent on behavior,
desired behaviors do not occur
Giving reinforcers too long after the desired behavior
occurs decreases the probability of their recurrence
13-83
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement refers to:
An increase in the frequency of a response following
removal of a negative reinforcer
Example:
Working hard to complete a job may be negatively
reinforced by not having to listen to a nagging boss
The unpleasant boss is removed because the
employee works hard
13-84
Punishment
Punishment is an uncomfortable consequence of a
particular behavioral response
Punishment sends a message not to do something

Punishment may be a poor approach to learning:

Punishment effects are not as predictable as rewards
Punishment effects are less permanent than rewards
Punishment is frequently accompanied by negative
attitudes toward:
The administrator of the punishment
The activity that led to the punishment
13-85
Punishment
Despite the potential costs of punishment, it will
continue to be a method of altering behavior
Where the cost of not punishing outweighs the
disadvantages, punishment may be appropriate
Punishment and its use depend on the situation and
the manager’s style of altering behavior
Extinction reduces undesired behavior through
non-reinforcement
If the non-reinforcement continues, the behavior
decreases and eventually disappears
People tend to repeat behaviors that lead to positive consequences
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OBM: A Managerial Perspective
Behavior modification in organizations follows a
five-step problem-solving process:
Identify and define the specific behavior
Measure/count the occurrences of the behavior and
formulate a baseline point
Conduct an ABC analysis of the behavior process
Formulate an action plan and strategies

Evaluate baseline to after-action behaviors

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Criticisms of Behavior Modification
There is no real change underlying behavior
It is a mistake to view reinforcements as modifying
responses, independent of a person’s beliefs, values, or
mental processes
Individuals can become dependent on the reinforcer
Individuals can become too dependent on extrinsic
reinforcers
When reinforcement is no longer available, the behavior
eventually becomes extinct
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Team Building
Team building is a development process that helps
organization members work better in groups
It is designed to enhance individual’s:
Problem-solving skills
Communication
Sensitivity to others
An organization depends on the cooperation of a
number of people to be successful
Consequently, teams of people must work in
harmony
Teams include task forces, committees, project teams,
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Team Building
When team building is successful:
Participation is encouraged and sustained
There is improved communication and problem
solving within and between teams
Team building is most successful when the technique
is tailored to the needs/problems of the groups
involved
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Total Quality Management (TQM)
TQM is a philosophy, a process, and a set of
principles that provide an organization with what is
needed to continuously improve its effectiveness
TQM involves everyone in the firm
Processes are developed and fine-tuned to be
customer-oriented, flexible, and responsive
The goal is to improve the quality of every activity
and function of the organization
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Total Quality Management (TQM)
To convert to TQM, there must be changes in:
Attitudes
Communication
Employee involvement
Commitment

Because of the effect of attitude on productivity and

quality, it must be addressed in any TQM program
Too often, managers are aware of resistance, but
don’t address its causes
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The Chief Executive Officer
The power to make change happen is largely vested
in management, which must:
Show the way
Articulate the vision
Show by example that TQM is mandatory
Make communication a top priority
Involve both workers and managers
Be prepared for resistance to change

Although TQM can be initiated by a CEO, it must

be practiced by staff lower in the hierarchy
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Evaluation of Training & Development
Evaluation is the final phase of the training and
development program
Cost-benefit analysis is more feasible for training and
development than for many other HRM functions
Costs are relatively easy to compute:
direct costs + indirect costs
The evaluation is made by comparing the results
(the benefits) with the objectives that were set
The criteria used to evaluate the program depend on
the objectives and who sets the criteria: management,
trainers, or trainees
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Criteria for Evaluation
Three types of criteria for evaluating training:
Internal
External
Participants’ reaction
Internal criteria are directly associated with the
content of the program, such as whether the employee
learned the facts covered
External criteria are related to the ultimate purpose of
the program, such as improving the effectiveness of the
employee
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Criteria for Evaluation
Some argue that it is more effective to use multiple
criteria to evaluate training; others recommend a
single criterion
A proponent of a multiple-criterion evaluation
system, Kirkpatrick suggests measuring:
Participants’ reaction
Learning
Behavior
Results

Many firms currently assess reactions, but few

measure behavioral results
13-96
A Matrix Guide for Evaluation
A systematic evaluation matrix can be used to
systematically review relevant issues or questions
The issues and questions provide only the direction
that evaluation can take
Actual design and data collection require following
the scientific method used by behavioral scientists
Simply asking participants if they like the program
is not scientific
The most pressing question is whether what is
learned in training transfers to the job
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A Matrix Guide for Evaluation
13-98
A Matrix Guide for Evaluation
Someone in authority must hold those who train and
develop employees accountable
 Efficient use of people, dollars, and facilities must be
shown
This can only be done if the evaluation phase is
completed and sound research designs are used
Evaluation is not easy, but it is a necessary and often
glossed-over part of training and development
13-99
Training Effectiveness
Formal training and development are more effective
than informal training, or no training at all
However, training and development programs
tend to be assumed rather than evaluated