MLS333 Bacteria Metabolism

MICROBIAL METABOLISM
MLS333 OLALEKAN AO
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Microbial Metabolism
• Metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions
in an organism.
• Catabolism is the energy-releasing processes,
catabolic, degradative,generally hydrolytic
reaction (use water and break chemical bonds).
• Exergonic – produce more energy than
consume
• Anabolism is the energy-using processes,
anabolic, biosynthetic, building of complex
molecules from simpler ones, involve dehydration
synthesis reactions (reactions that release water)
• Endergonic – consume more energy that
produce.
Microbial Metabolism
• Catabolism provides the building blocks and energy for

anabolism.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 5.1
ATP stores energy from catabolic reactions and releases
it later to drive anabolic reactions and perform other
cellular work.
The coupling or energy requiring and energy releasing
reaction is made possible through the molecule
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP
• Is made by dehydration synthesis.
• Is broken by hydrolysis to liberate useful energy for the
cell.
When the terminal phosphate group splits from ATP, adenosine

diphosphate is formed and energy is released to drive anabolic
reactions
• A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzymatically
catalyzed chemical reactions in a cell.
• Metabolic pathways are determined by enzymes.
• Enzymes are proteins encoded by genes.
• The collision theory states that chemical reactions
can occur when atoms, ions, and molecules collide.
• Reaction rate is the frequency of collisions with
enough energy to bring about a reaction.
• Reaction rate can be increased by enzymes or by
increasing temperature or pressure.

Catalyst
• Catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction without
being permanently altered themselves
• Enzymes are biological catalyst, specific for a
chemical reaction, acts on a specific substance
called a substrate
• The enzyme orients the substrate into position that
increases the probability of a reaction
• Enzyme substrate complex forms by the
temporary binding of enzyme and substrate enable
the collison to be more effective and lowers the
activation energy of the reaction

Enzymes
• Apoenzyme: protein portion of an enzyme, can be the

whole enzyme
• Cofactor: Nonprotein component, help catalyze by
forming a bridge between the enzyme and the
substrate
• Coenzyme: Organic cofactor, NAD+NADP+FAD
Coenzyme A, may assist the enzymatic reaction
by accepting atoms removed from the substrate or by
donating atoms required by the substrate, electron
carriers
• Holoenzyme: Apoenzyme + cofactor (coenzyme)
Enzyme Classification
6 classes, named for type of chemical reaction they catalyze

• Oxidoreductase Oxidation-reduction
reactions
• Transferase Transfer functional groups
• Hydrolase Hydrolysis
• Lyase Removal of atoms without
hydrolysis
• Isomerase Rearrangement of atoms
• Ligase Joining of molecules, uses
ATP

Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity
• Enzymes can be denatured by temperature and pH
• Temperature pH
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 5.5a
• Competitive inhibition – inhibitors fill the active site of
an enzyme and compete with the normal substrate for
the active site
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 5.7a, b
Ex – PABA is an essential nutrient of many bacteria
in the synthesis of folic acid. Sulfanilamide binds to
the enzyme that converts PABA to folic acid,
bacteria cannot grow

• Noncompetitive inhibition- inhibitor interacts with
another part of the enzyme
• Allosteric inhibitor –inhibitor binds to a site other
than the substrate binding site and cause the active
site to change shape making it non-functional
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 5.7a, c
• Feedback
inhibition – a series
of enzymes make an
end product that
inhibits the first
enzyme in the
series, this shuts
down the entire
pathway when
sufficient end
product has been
made
Energy Production
• Nutrient molecules have energy associated with

electrons that form bonds between their atoms
• Reactions in catabolic pathways convert this energy
into bonds of ATP, which serves as a convenient
energy carrier

Oxidation-Reduction
• Oxidation is the removal of electrons.
• Reduction is the gain of electrons.
• Redox reaction is an oxidation reaction paired with a
reduction reaction.
Oxidation-Reduction
• In biological systems, the electrons are often
associated with hydrogen atoms. Biological oxidations
are often dehydrogenations.
Energy Production
• Cells use redox reactions in catabolism to extract energy
from nutrient molecules
• Cells take nutrients, degrade them from a highly reduced
compound with a lot of hydrogen atoms to a highly
oxidized compound which can serve as an energy
source
• Ex – a cell oxidizes a molecule of glucose C 6H12C6 to
CO2 and H2O, the energy in glucose is removed in a
stepwise manner and ultimately trapped by
ATP

• To produce energy from glucose microbes use two
general processes
• Cellular respiration
• Fermentation
• Both start with glycolysis but follow different
subsequent pathways

The Generation of ATP
• ATP is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP.

Carbohydrate Catabolism
• Most organisms oxidize carbohydrates as their primary

source of cellular energy, most common is glucose
• The breakdown of carbohydrates to release energy
• Glycolysis
• Krebs cycle
• Electron transport chain

Glycolysis
• The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid, produces ATP

and NADH.
6-carbon sugar is
split into 2 3- 1 - 6 carbon sugar
carbon sugars, the
sugar is oxidized,
releasing energy
and their atoms
rearrange to form 2
molecules of
pyruvic acid 2 - 3 carbon sugars

Preparatory Stage
Preparatory
Stage
Glucose
Glucose
• 2 ATPs are used 2
6-phosphate
• Glucose is split to Fructose

form 2 Glucose-3- 6-phosphate
3
phosphate
Fructose
1,6-diphosphate
4
5
Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate
Dihydroxyacetone (GP)
phosphate (DHAP)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 5.12.1
Energy-Conserving Stage
6
• 2 Glucose-3-
phosphate oxidized
1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid
to 2 Pyruvic acid
7
• 4 ATP produced
• 2 NADH produced 3-phosphoglyceric acid
• Net 2 ATP 8
2-phosphoglyceric acid
Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
(PEP)
10
Pyruvic acid
Pyruvic Acid
• Pyruvic acid can be channeled into the next

step of either fermentation of cellular
respiration

Alternatives to Glycolysis
• Pentose phosphate pathway:

• Uses pentoses and NADPH
• Operates with glycolysis
• Entner-Doudoroff pathway:
• Produces NADPH and ATP
• Does not involve glycolysis
• Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Agrobacterium

Cellular Respiration
• ATP generating process in which molecules are

oxidized and the final electron acceptor is almost
always an inorganic molecule

Intermediate Step
• Pyruvic acid (from glycolysis) cannot enter the
Krebs cycle directly
• In a preparatory step it most lose one molecule of
CO2 and becomes a two carbon compound
(decarboyxlated)
• The 2c-carbon complex – acetyl group attaches to
coenzyme A through a high energy bond
• Result is acetyl-coenzyme A, 2 acetyl-CoA per
glucose

Krebs Cycle – TCA cycle – Citric Acid Cycle
• Series of redox
reactions that
transfer potential
energy in the
form of electrons
to electron
carriers, chiefly
NAD
• For every Acetyl-
CoA – 2 ATP, 4
CO2, 6 NADH, 2
FADH

The Electron Transport Chain
• A series of carrier molecules that are, in turn, oxidized

and reduced as electrons are passed down the chain.
• Series of reductions that indirectly transfer the energy
stored in the coenzymes formed in the Krebs cycle to
ATP

Respiration
• Aerobic respiration: The final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain is molecular oxygen (O 2).
• In prokaryotes – results in 38 ATP
• In eukaryotes – results in 36 ATP, lose energy shuttling
electrons across mitochondria membrane
• Anaerobic respiration: The final electron acceptor in
the electron transport chain is not O2. Yields less
energy than aerobic respiration because only part of
the Krebs cycles operations under anaerobic
conditions.
• ATP levels vary with the organism and the pathway,
not all carrier in the electron transport chain are
used
Pathway Eukaryote Prokaryote
Glycolysis Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Intermediate step Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix Cytoplasm
ETC Mitochondrial inner Plasma

membrane membrane

Fermentation
• Glucose can be converted to another organic product

in fermentation
• Releases energy from oxidation of organic molecules
• Does not require oxygen
• Does not use the Krebs cycle or ETC
• Uses an organic molecule as the final electron
acceptor
• Produces only a small amount of ATP

Fermentation
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 5.18b
Other Energy Sources
• Microbes can oxidize lipids and proteins for energy
• Lipids are broken down by lipases which break fats
down into fatty acids and glycerol components. Each
component is then metabolized separately
• Beneficial for oil spills

Lipid Catabolism
• Proteins are broken down by proteases and
peptidases which break down proteins to amino
acids and then convert them by deamination,
(removal of the amino group, to enter the Krebs
cycle. The amino group is converted to an ammonia
ion which can be excreted from the cell.

Protein Catabolism
Extracellular
proteases
Protein Amino acids
Deamination, decarboxylation,
dehydrogenation
Organic acid Krebs cycle

Biochemical tests
• Used to identify
bacteria.

Photosynthesis
• Photo: Conversion of light energy into chemical energy

(ATP)
• Synthesis: Fixing carbon into organic molecules
• Photosynthesis – synthesis of complex organic
compounds from single inorganic substances

Photosynthesis
• Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical

energy
• Chemical energy is used to convert CO 2 from
atmosphere to more reduced carbon compounds,
primarily sugars
• Synthesis of sugar by using carbon atoms from CO 2
gas is call carbon fixation
• In photosynthesis electrons are taken from hydrogen
atoms of water, an energy poor molecule, and
incorporated into sugar, an energy rich molecule

• Species that use light energy are phototrophs.
• Species that obtain energy from chemicals in their
environment are chemotrophs.
• Organisms that need only CO2 as a carbon source are
autotrophs.
• Organisms that require at least one organic nutrient as a
carbon source are heterotrophs.
• These categories of energy source and carbon source
can be combined to group prokaryotes according to
four major modes of nutrition.

• Photoautotrophs are photosynthetic organisms that
harness light energy to drive the synthesis of organic
compounds from carbon dioxide.
• Chemoautotrophs need only CO2 as a carbon

source, but they obtain energy by oxidizing
inorganic substances, rather than light.
• These substances include hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
ammonia (NH3), and ferrous ions (Fe2+) among others.
• This nutritional mode is unique to prokaryotes.
• Photoheterotrophs use light to generate ATP but
obtain their carbon in organic form.
• This mode is restricted to prokaryotes.
• Chemoheterotrophs must consume organic
molecules for both energy and carbon.
• This nutritional mode is found widely in prokaryotes,
protists, fungi, animals, and even some parasitic plants.

Metabolic Diversity Among Organisms
Nutritional type Energy Carbon source Example

source
Photoautotroph Light CO2 Oxygenic:

Cyanobacteria plants.
Anoxygenic: Green,
purple bacteria.
Photoheterotroph Light Organic

compounds
Green, purple
nonsulfur bacteria.
Chemoautotroph Chemical CO2 Iron-oxidizing

bacteria.
Chemoheterotroph Chemical Organic

compounds
Fermentative bacteria.
Animals, protozoa,
fungi, bacteria.

Amphibolic pathways
• Are metabolic pathways that have both catabolic and
anabolic functions.
Amphibolic pathways
Most of the ATP made by the cell is used in the

production of new cellular components
Amphibolic pathways bridge the reactions that lead to the
breakdown and synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleus.
These pathways allow for the simultaneous reactions to
occur in which the breakdown products formed in one
reaction are used in another reaction to synthesize a
different compound, or vice versa

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MICROBIAL METABOLISM

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Catabolism provides the building blocks and energy for

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

When the terminal phosphate group splits from ATP, adenosine

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Apoenzyme: protein portion of an enzyme, can be the

6 classes, named for type of chemical reaction they catalyze

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Nutrient molecules have energy associated with

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Most organisms oxidize carbohydrates as their primary

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid, produces ATP

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Glucose is split to Fructose

• Pyruvic acid can be channeled into the next

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Pentose phosphate pathway:

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• ATP generating process in which molecules are

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• A series of carrier molecules that are, in turn, oxidized

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Glycolysis Cytoplasm Cytoplasm

Intermediate step Cytoplasm Cytoplasm

Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix Cytoplasm

ETC Mitochondrial inner Plasma

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Glucose can be converted to another organic product

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Photo: Conversion of light energy into chemical energy

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Chemoautotrophs need only CO2 as a carbon

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nutritional type Energy Carbon source Example

Photoautotroph Light CO2 Oxygenic:

Photoheterotroph Light Organic

Chemoautotroph Chemical CO2 Iron-oxidizing

Chemoheterotroph Chemical Organic

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Most of the ATP made by the cell is used in the

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