Principles of Process Metallurgy

MM320

• Part-1: Mineral beneficiation – Physical

separation of minerals »16 contacts
• Part-2: Extraction of metals – Principles and
methods »26 contacts.
Principles of Process Metallurgy
Mineral to metal journey

Stockpile
Mine
Smelt
Beneficiate
Refine
Sell to a smelter
Shape & sell
Mineral beneficiation Metal extraction
N K Khosla Somnath Basu
Size reductionConcentration
Dewatering Smelting Refining

Saleable
product
Mineral beneficiation

Also termed – Mineral

Processing
Physical beneficiation of minerals
Concentration of mineral
Mineral processing
Mining (mineral vs ore)
Size reduction (liberation)
Screening (separation based on size)
Concentration (based on colour, size, sp. gravity, bulk resistance,
surface property)
Drying of mineral concentrate
Sell to a smelter
Extraction of metals
Thermodynamic aspects
Energy requirements
Kinetic considerations
Extraction process (furnaces/reactors)
Metal refining process
Secondary metal processing
 Metal pricing
Average sale price of metals (LME), Nov, 2021
Mineral volumes Metal Sale price(INR)
Iron ore: 200Mmt Aluminium ₹/tonne 196758
Copper: 13.9Mmt
Zinc: 1.54Mmt LME: London Metal Exchange
Aluminium: 25Mmt Copper ₹/tonne 727403 LBMA*: London Bullion market
Gold ₹/tr oz * 135579 Association
Indian copper Units:
imports: 300,000mt
Lead ₹/tonne 174869
tonne/metric tonne/MT = 1000Kg
Nickel ₹/tonne 1487125 DMT: Dry metric tonne
Zinc import costs: Silver ₹/tr oz * 1802 mtu (metric tonne unit) = 10kg
USD: 830million
Tin ₹/tonne 2929851 tr oz* = troy ounce » 31.1g
Zinc ₹/tonne 247106 regular ounce (oz) » 28.35g
Pound = 16 oz = 0.45359237 kg
Product valuation
Smelter: Purchases concentrates and smelts (reduces) them to
saleable metal.
Sale price of concentrate depends upon:
• Sale price of metal
• All costs involved in smelting
• Penalties for ore constituents which are detrimental to smelting
process
• Cost of shaping the product in saleable form
What is a smelter schedule
• An agreement scheme between a concentrator and a smelter for the
sale or purchase of concentrates
• The price of the raw materials shall be the sum of the values of the
payable metals less the sum of the deductions
• Considers economic and operational factors to determine the most
agreeable rates for:
• Payment schemes for the contained metals
• Deductions for hazardous materials
• Other charges
Mineral concentration and smelting

Concentrates

Payments
Concentrator Smelter
Deductions
+ Charges Metal
+Penalties ingot
Sample Cu smelter schedule
Payments
Copper: Deduct 1.5 mtu* from Cu assay and pay for 97.5% of
remainder at published price, less a deduction of 26.4 ₹/Kg of Cu.( No
payment for < 3% Cu).
Gold: Deduct 0.7gm/tonne* and pay for 92.5% of remainder at
published price less deduction 3.2₹/gm.
Silver: Deduct 34.0gm/tonne and pay for 95% of remainder at
published price less deduction of 0.32 ₹/gm

* 1tonne=1000kg. 1mtu is 1% of a tonne, i.e., 10kg.

Sample Cu smelter schedule
Deductions
Treatment charges: ₹ 4488/tonne
Labour adjustment: Smelter charge is based on average hourly
labour cost of ₹ 700.0 /tonne
Increase or decrease charges by 13.75 ₹ for each 1 ₹/hr that
average hourly cost changes.
Arsenic: Charge ₹ 68.0/unit if > 0.5 units
Antimony: Allow 0.2 units free. Excess at ₹ 101.5/unit
Bismuth: Allow 0.05 units free. Excess at ₹ 34.0/unit
Nickel: Allow 0.3 units free. Excess at ₹ 350.0/unit
Zinc: Allow 5.0 units free. Excess at ₹ 20.4/unit
Sample Zn smelter schedule
Payments
Zinc: Pay for 85% of Zn content at published price less a deduction of
2.2 ₹ /kg
Cadmium: Pay for 40% of Cd at published price less ₹ 224.4/kg
Lead: Deduct 1.5 units, and pay for 65% of remainder at published price
less 1.1 ₹ /kg. No payment for less than 3%Pb.
Silver: Deduct 170gm/tonne, and pay for 60% of remainder at
published price less 0.18 ₹ /gm.
Sample Zn smelter schedule

Deductions
Treatment charges: ₹ 11220.0/tonne. Increase by ₹150.0 tonne for
each 1.0 ₹ increase in the Zn price above 29 ₹.
Labour adjustment: Smelter charge is based on average hourly labour
cost of ₹ 680.0/tonne
Increase or decrease charges by 26 ₹ for each 1₹/hr that average
hourly cost changes.
Iron: Deduct 8 units; charge for excess at ₹ 102/unit
Unit operations in process Metallurgy
Size reduction
Screening (Size based separation)
Mineral concentration (by removing gangue)
Solid – liquid separation
(Water removal from mineral-water slurry)
Smelting of concentrates
Purification of metals
Typical Lead mine concentrate

Ore assay Conc. assay

10% PbS Mineral 80% PbS
2g Ag/kg of PbS concentrator Recovered Ag
17.32g As/kg of PbS Recovered As
Metal prices
• Pb = ₹ 175/kg
• Ag = ₹ 57,942/kg
• Av. labour rate = ₹ 750/hr
Separation process
STREAMS
Product containing
valuable
INPUT Process Concentrate (+)

Residue or Waste e.g.

Tailings or Recycle (-)
Basic concentration process

FEED TAILINGS (-)

Concentrator
Mineral +
Water

CONCENTRATE (+)
Calculation of grade and recovery
Amount of Feed =1000kg 1000kg, 1% Cu
Mineral
Cu percentage in feed = 1% concentra 7Kg, Cu +
Cu in Concentrate is =7Kg tor 50Kg gangue

Waste in Concentrate = 50Kg

Grade of Cu in concentrate =
Copper in feed = 1000*.01=10Kg
Recovery of Cu= 100* 7/10 = 70%
Grade of Cu in Tailing = Cu in Tailing / [Cu + waste in tailing]
= 3KgCu/(1000-7-50)kg [waste+Cu] » 0.32%
Recovery of Cu in Tailing = 100*3/10 = 30%
Cu grade Feed Concentrate Tailing
1% 12.2% 0.32%
Concentrator circuit
RECYCLE
Tailing
FEED Rougher Scavenger TAILINGS
Mineral +
Water concentrate concentrate

Cleaner
Tailing

Final concentrate
Why
recycle?
Concentrator circuit
RECYCLE

FEED Rougher Scavenger TAILINGS

Mineral +
Water

Cleaner Regrind

Final concentrate
Concentrator circuit
1000t/hr Feed rate
10%PbS
FEED Rougher Scavenger TAILINGS
O(-)R
G(-)R

O(+)R
G(+)R Cleaner Regrind

Final concentrate
O – Mass flow rate (t/hr)
G – Grade (%)
Concentrator circuit

FEED Rougher Scavenger TAILINGS

O(+)R
G(+)R Cleaner Regrind
O(-)C
G(-)C
Final concentrate
O(+)C
G(+)R O – Mass flow rate (t/hr)
Recovery=R% G – Grade (%)
Concentrator circuit
O(-)S
G(-)S
FEED Rougher Scavenger TAILINGS
O(-)R
G(-)R

O(+)S
Cleaner G(+)S
Regrind

Final concentrate
O – Mass flow rate (t/hr)
G – Grade (%)
 Concentrator circuit
Re cycle
1000t/hr Circulating load = Fresh feed O(-)S
10%PbS G(-)S
FRESH FEED Rougher Scavenger TAILINGS
O(-)R
G(-)R

Recycle
O(+)R O(+)S
G(+)R Cleaner G(+)S
Regrind
O(-)C
G(-)C
Final concentrate
Calculations O(+)C
G(+)C O – Mass flow rate (t/hr)
• Mass balance G – Grade (%)
Recovery=R%
• Flow balance
Circulating load in a milling circuit
Cyclone 100T/
Overflow 24hrs
Circulating load ratio = 400/100 = 4.0 ……(400%)
Recycle = 400T/24hrs
Role of circulating load

Fresh feed
100T/24hrs

500T/24hrs
Reduced capacity due to circulating load

Role of circulating load

Circulating load in practical situations

may range from 200-700%
Flow sheet – mass balance example
In actual plants, water balance should also be considered
Tailings
Feed O(-) t/hr
1000 t/hr
Concentrator
0.19%PbS
10%PbS
Concentrate
O(+) t/hr,
Total flow 80%PbS
1000 (t/hr)
Mineral = O(+) (t/hr)
beneficiation + O(-)
plant t/hr feed
having ……………………..(1)
of 10% PbS
PbS flow balance
produces concentrate having 80% grade and loses 0.19%
1000(t/hr).(10%/100)
PbS in tailings = O(+)(t/hr).(80%/100) +
O(-)(t/hr).and
Calculate flowrate of concentrate (0.19%/100) …….(2)
tailing streams
From
Basis (1) & (2)t/hr
– 1000
O(+) = 122.9 (t/hr) and O(-) = 1000 – 122.9 = 877.1 (t/hr)
Flow sheet – typical problem
1000t/hr
10%PbS
FEED Rougher Rougher
tailings
O(+)R=? O(-)R=?
G(+)R=? G(-)R=?

Cleaner
O(-)C = 250 t/hr
G(-)C = 20% Four eqns., 5 unknowns
Final concentrate 1. Rougher mass balance
O(+)C = ? 2. Rougher PbS balance
G(+)C = 90% 3. Cleaner mass balance
Recovery=98% 4. Cleaner PbS balance
Size reduction
Typical steps in mineral concentration
1. Mine (large stones or boulders)
2. Reduce size (Crushing and Grinding) for liberation [Why reduce
size?]
3. Separation of valuables and waste (Wet concentration)
• Locked
4. Removing water (thickening and drying) particles
Particle diameter , shape and size distribution play important
• Sizerole in
reduction
steps 3 & 4 is required to
liberate locked
particles
Characterization of particles
Particle size (particle diameter)
Diameter of sphere (d0)
Sieve diameter (dA)
Surface diameter (dS) dM
Volume diameter (dV) dPA
Projected area diameter (dP) dF
Stokes diameter [dSt = 18v¥/(rS-rf)g]
Specific surface diameter [(dS)= d3V/d2S]
Particle diameter
Average size of a
Geometric Individual particles
distribution of Having same
mean
particles dng
dn sed sedimentation
rate
Arithmetic dna
average
Sphere of
dnS same
dnqp surface area
Median diameter
Statistical
dn sieve dnW Sphere of same
over properties
weight or
q & p. e.g. count,
Sphere passing volume(dnV)
length, area,
mass, moment.. same sieve aperture
Particle shape
• Particles are complex 3-dimensional objects. Hence some
simplification of the description of the particle shape is required
Particle shape is frequently referred as-
• Angular
• Flaky
• Modular
• elongated
Particle shape
Particle shape
• Shape factors are dimensionless quantities used in image analysis and
microscopy that numerically describe the shape of a particle,
independent of its size.
• Shape factors are calculated from measured dimensions, such as
diameter, chord lengths, area, perimeter, centroid, moments, etc.
• In general, for irregular particles, ratios, Volume / (diameter)3 , and
Surface area/ (diameter)2 are constant.
• These effectively define the shape factors
• Actual SF depends upon choice of nominal diameters [e.g. n =
average, stokes….]
Particle shape
In general, for irregular particles, shape factors(SF) RE defined as-
Volume shape factor(lVn): It is the parameter used to compare volume
of any shape with volume of cube = V/dn3

Surface shape factor(lSn) - SA/dn2

(V=volume, dn = nominal diameter & SA = surface area)

Actual SF depends upon choice of nominal diameters [e.g. n = average,

stokes….]
Particle shape
SF can be related to a suitable reference sphere as follows

dr

SP is surface area of irregular particle and reference sphere

lSn=surface shape factor (on the basis of nominal diameter
dn)
dr = diameter of reference sphere
VP = volume of irregular particle and reference sphere
lVn=volume shape factor (on the basis of nominal
Particle shape
Two further shape factors are commonly used
1. Sphericity, Y=

It follows that

And by substituting the appropriate forms of equations

from previous slide

Here subscript ‘a’ refers to projected area diameter

Particle shape
Commonly used shape factor is defined as
Sphericity, Y =

Writing Area of Sphere AS in terms of volume of particle

VP

Hence
Computing sphericity

As
Computing sphericity
Compute sphericity of cube of unit dimension
Volume = 1(m3), Area = 6(m2)

Likewise, compute sphericity of –

Ideal cone , ideal cylinder (h=2r), Tetrahedron, Octahedron,
hemisphere and other common geometrical shapes.
Typical shape factors
Type of material lVa lSa y
Rounded particles: 0.32 – 0.41 2.7 – 3.4 0.817
Water worn sands
Atomized metals.
Angular particles of 0.2 – 0.28 2.5 – 3.2 0.655
pulverized minerals:
Coal, limestone, sand
Flaky particles 0.12 – 0.16 2.0 – 2.8 0.543
Talc, gypsum
Very thin flakes: 0.01 – 0.03 1.6 – 1.7 0.216
Mica graphite, Al.
To summarize
• Particle diameters are defined by equating various properties of a
particle to an equivalent sphere
• Definition of average diameter of a distribution of particles may be
based on arithmetic, geometric or statistical averages
• Particle shape is defined by likening it to spheres having similar area
or volume
Flow sheet mass balance calculations
RECYCLE STREAM
Tailing
FEED (1000 TPH) O(-)R = ?
Rougher
10% PbS G(-)R = ?
O(+)R = ? concentrate
G(+)R = ?

Cleaner Tailing
O(-)C = 250 TPH
G(-)C = 20%
Final concentrate
O(+)C = ?
G(+)C = 90%
Overall recovery = 98.2%
Mass balance calculations
 Mass balance calculations
Five unknowns Four equations
Basis : Input= output. Given, feed = 1000TPH, overall recovery = 98.2%,
overall grade = 90%.
Write mass balance equations for Rougher and Cleaner.[Note: O (+),O(-)
values are flow rates]
1. Rougher total mass balance ……..(Total massflow in = total massflow out)
1000+250 = O(-)R + O(+)R
2. Cleaner total mass balance ……..(Total massflow in = total massflow out)
3. Rougher PbS mass balance ……..(Total PbS in = total PbS out)
4. Cleaner PbS Mass balance……..(Total PbS in = total PbS out)
5. Overall recovery:
Next contact : Tutorial-1