GEEN 1312 Engineering

Measurements
and Estimations

21/01/24
 Objectives

 Determine the number of significant digits in a

measurements
 Use appropriate number of significant digits after
numerical calculations
 Define accuracy and precision in measurements
 Define systematic and random errors
 Involve approximations in solving problems
 Develop solutions, involve findings and estimating
 Numbers and significant digits

 Numbers used for calculation purposes in

engineering design and analysis may be
integers (exact) or real (exact or
approximate)
 Exact numbers like 1,2,100,500 etc
 Approximate like  which is an approximate
real number that may be written as
3.14, 3.142, 3.14159 etc.
 Presentation of numerical values in
engineering work

 For number less than one, a zero is written in

front of decimal point to avoid errors, therefore
we write 0.125 and not .125
 A space not comma used to divide numbers of
three orders magnitude or more. Write 3 673.9
instead of 3,673.9 and 0.723 51 instead of
0.723,51
 For very large or very small use scientific
notation. 12000000 as 1.2 x 107 (multiplier).
10 000 meters as 10 km (use prefix name)
 Decimal Prefixes and Multiples, Powers of
Ten
Multiple Prefix Symbol Common Name

(10100)100 anton A antonplex

(1010)100 - - googolplex

10100 - - googol

1024 yotta Y heptillion

1021 zetta Z hexillion

1018 exa E quintillion

1015 peta P quadrillion

1012 tera T trillion

109 giga G billion

106 mega M million

103 kilo k thousand

102 hecto h hundred

101 deca da ten

10-1 deci d tenth

10-2 centi c hundreth

10-3 milli m thousandth

10-6 micro (Greek mu) millionth

10-9 nano n billionth

10-12 pico p trillionth

10-15 femto f quadrillionth

10-18 atto a quintillionth

10-21 zepto z hexillionth

10-24 yocto y heptillionth

 Significant digit

 Defined as any digit used in writing a number,

except zeros used for location of decimal point
or those that do not have any non-zero digit on
their left.
 0.0025, digits 2 and 5 are significant
 0.0150, has 3 significant digits including the right
most zero.
 2.000 x103 has 4 significant digits
 2.0x103 has 2 significant digits
 When are Digits Significant?

 Non-zero digits are always significant. Thus,

22 has two significant digits, and 22.3 has
three significant digits.
 With zeroes, the situation is more complicated:

a. Zeroes placed before other digits are not

significant; 0.046 has two significant digits.
b. Zeroes placed between non zero digits are
always significant; 4009 kg has four significant
digits.
c. Zeroes placed after other digits but behind a
decimal point are significant; 7.90 has three
significant digits.
 Zeroes at the end of a number are significant
only if they are behind a decimal point as in
(c). Otherwise, it is impossible to tell if they
are significant.
 For example, in the number 8200, it is not
clear if the zeroes are significant or not. The
number of significant digits in 8200 is at least
two, but could be three or four. To avoid
uncertainty, use scientific notation to place
significant zeroes behind a decimal point:
 8.200 x103 has four significant digits
 8.20 x103 has three significant digits
 8.2 x103 has two significant digits
Quantity Number of significant
figures
4784 4
36 2
60 1 or 2
600 1,2, or 3
6.00x102 3
31.72 4
30.02 4
46.0 3
0.02 1
0.020 2
600.00 5
A) How many significant digits do the following
measured quantities have?
i) 2.83 cm
ii) 14.0 g
iii) 0.02 mL
iv) 2.350 x 10–2 L
v) 3 fingers
vi) 36.77 mm
vii) 0.0033 kg
viii) 0.2410 km
ix) 1.00009 L
x) 0.0056040 g
 Rules for determining significant figures as
developed by engineering associations

 Rounding: increase the last digit retained by 1 if

the first figure dropped is 5 or greater.
Examples:
 23.650 rounds to 23.7 for 3 significant figures
 0.014 3 rounds to 0.014 for 2 significant figures
 827.48 rounds to 827.5 or 827 for 4 and 3
significant digits respectively
 For measured numbers, significant figures relate
the certainty of the measurement
 if one wishes to express the number 2000 to
varying degrees of certainty:

 2 x 103 is expressed to one significant figure

 2.0 x 103 is expressed to two significant figures

 2.00 x 103 is expressed to three significant
figures

 2.000 x 103 is expressed to four significant

figures
 What do these numbers imply as to the
certainty?
 The number 2000 to one significant figure lies
between:1 x 103 = 1000
2 x 103 = 2000
3 x 103 = 3000
It is a number that lies between 1000 and 3000 not very
certain.
The number 2000 to two significant figures
lies between:

1.9 x 103 = 1900

2.0 x 103 = 2000

2.1 x 103 = 2100

It is a number that lies between 1900 and

2100 -- more certain than before.
The number 2000 to three significant figures
lies between:

1.99 x 103 = 1990

2.00 x 103 = 2000

2.01 x 103 = 2010

It is a number that lies between 1990 and 2010

-- more certain, still.
The number 2000 to four significant
figures lies between:

1.999 x 103 = 1999

2.000 x 103 = 2000

2.001 x 103 = 2001

It is a number that lies between 1999 and
2001 -- even more certain
 Note: you must decide the number of significant
figures before you round.
 Example: rounding 827.48 to three significant
figures is 827. But if you first round to four
figures it will be 827.5 and then round that
number to three figures would be 828 which is
not correct.
 Multiplication and division

 The product or quotient should contain the same

number of significant digits as the number of the
fewest digits.
 Examples:
 (2.43)(17.675)=42.950 25
2.43 has three significant digits and 17.675 has
five. The answer should have three significant
as the smallest and would be 43.0 or 4.30 x 10 1
 589.62/1.246= 473.210 27
The answer to four significant figure is 473.2
When a conversion factor is applied try to avoid it
in the answer.
 Example: (2.479h)(60min/h)= 148.74 min

Based on 2.479 has four significant digits and the

answer is 148.7 min
 Example: (4.00x102kg)(2.204 6 lbm/kg)= 881.84
lbm then round to three figures as
(4.00x102kg)and the answer will be 882lbm
Exercise B

How many significant digits?

i) 7.255 ÷ 81.334
ii) 1.142 x 0.002
iii) 31.22 x 9.8
Addition and subtraction

 The answer should show significant digits only

as far to the right as seen in the least precise
number in the calculation
 Example: 1 725.463
189.2
16.73
--------------
1 931.393
The least precise number is 189.2 and .2 is an
estimate, the answer would be 1 931.4
 Example:
897.0
- 0.092 2
---------------
896.907 8
Apply the rule will result in an answer of 896.9
 Exercise C

How many significant digits?

 i) 83.25 – 0.1075
 ii) 4.02 + 0.001
 iii) 0.2983 + 1.52
 Accuracy and precision

 Accuracy: is a measure of the nearness of a

value to the correct or true value.
 Precision: refers to the repeatability of a
measurement, that is how close successive
measurements are to each other.
 Accuracy and precision can be improved by
analyzing the cause of errors.
 In engineering making physical measurements
encounters two types of error, systematic and
random.
Example: Metal rod of 10.160 cm long has been
passed around to several groups of students. Each
group is asked to measure the length of the rod.
Each group has five students and each student
independently measures the rod and records his
result.

Student Group Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Student 4 Student 5

Group A 10.1 10.4 9.6 9.9 10.8

Group B 10.135 10.227 10.201 10.011 10.155

Group C 12.14 12.17 12.15 12.14 12.18

Group D 10.05 10.82 8.01 11.5 10.77

Group E 10 11 10 10 10
 Which group has the most accurate
measurement?
 Answer : group B
 Which group has the most precise
measurement?
 Answer: group C
 Which group has the least accurate
measurement?
 Answer: group C
 Which group has the least precise
measurement?
 Answer: group D
 Errors

 Why doesn’t a repeat of measurements yield the

same results?
 Did the same person make all measurements?
 Was the same measuring instrument used?
 Were reading all made from exactly the same
location
 Was measuring instrument correctly graduated?
 It is obvious that errors will occur in each
measurement.
 Identifiable and correctable errors are classified as
systematic; accidentals or other noidentifiable errors
are classified as random.
 Systematic errors

 These are errors caused by the way in which

the experiment was conducted. In other
words, they are caused by the design of the
system.
 Systematic errors can not be eliminated by
averaging. In principle, they can always be
eliminated by changing the way in which the
experiment was done.
 Example:

 Proper design of the experiment can

eliminate them

 Some of the liquid will evaporate while it is

being measured

 The balance may not be properly calibrated

 Random errors

 Random errors usually result from the

experimenter's inability to take the same
measurement in exactly the same way to get
exact the same number
 Random errors can be eliminated by
averaging
 Examples:

 Doing several trials and finding the average

will minimize them

 Your eye level will move a bit while reading

the meniscus
 Air currents cause the balance to fluctuate
 Approximations

 There are many instances where engineer is

expected to make an approximation to an
answer.
 On that engineers rely on their basic
understanding of the problem and their
previous experience.
 These estimates may be in error by perhaps
10 to 20%. This depends on what reference
materials we have, time and experience.
 Example

 The executive of an airline considering the

purchase of the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner.
An aerospace engineer is asked to give a quick
estimate of the average cruise fuel
consumption of the 787 on a per mile basis.
 Solution

 The engineer has reviewed the 787

specifications. 787-8 has an estimated range
of 9 200 to 9 775 miles. The fuel capacity is
about 33 000 gallons or about 220 000 lb.( 1
gal = 3.785 liter)
 Assume that 10% of fuel is used during taxi,
takeoff, climb to cruise altitude, descent, and
final taxi and a 10% reserve is required upon
arrival.
 The estimated cruise fuel consumption per mile
as 26 400/ 9 775 = 2.7 gal/mi
or 176 000/ 9 775 = 18 lb/mi