Mr kareem sharaf

Communication and Internet


Technologies
Mr kareem sharaf

Communication

 When data is sent from one device to another, it is important to consider
how that data is transmitted.

Transferring Data Transferring Idea

 Mr kareem sharaf

Data Transmission

 three factors need to be considered when transmitting data :
 1- the direction of the data transmission
 2- the method of transmission ( How many Bits)
 3- the method of synchronisation between the two devices
Mr kareem sharaf

Data Transmission

Number one
The direction of the data
transmission

Transmission mode
Mr kareem sharaf

Transmission mode Types


Transmission
modes

Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Mr kareem sharaf

Transmission mode Types


 1- SIMPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION
is in one direction only
2- HALF,DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION
is in both directions but not at the same time
3- FULL·DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION
is in both direction simultaneously
Mr kareem sharaf
SIMPLEX DATA
TRANSMISSION

 from sender to receiver Example: data being sent from a computer to a
printer
Mr kareem sharaf

HALF,DUPLEX DATA
TRANSMISSION

 data can be sent from 'A' to 'B' or from 'B' to 'A' along the same line, but
not at the same time). Example: a phone conversation between two
people where only one person speaks at a time .
Mr kareem sharaf

FULL-DUPLEX DATA
TRANSMISSION

 Data can be sent from 'A' to ' B' and from 'B' to 'A' along the same line,
both at the same time) . Example: broadband connection on a phone line
Mr kareem sharaf

Data Transmission

Number Two
The method of transmission ( How
many Bits)

Data Transmission
Mr kareem sharaf

Data Transmission

Data
Transmission

Serial parallel
Mr kareem sharaf

Serial Data Transmission


 is when data is sent, 0ne bit at a time, over a single Wire or channel (bits are
sent one after the other in a single stream).
 This method of data transmission works well over long distances. However,
data
 is transmitted at a slower rate than parallel data transmission. Since only
one wire
 or channel is used,
 Mr kareem sharaf

Serial Data Transmission


1- sent one bit over single wire at one time
2- works very well over a long distances
3- slower rate than parallel data transmission
 Mr kareem sharaf
PARALLEL DATA
TRANSMISSION

 is when several bits of data (usually 1 byte) are sent down several wires or channels at the
same time, one wire or channel Is used to transmit each bit
 This method of data transmission works very well over short distances ( over longer
distances, the bits can become 'skewed' - this means they will no longer be
synchronised). It is, however, a faster method of data transmission than serial.
 Mr kareem sharaf

PARALLEL Data Transmission


1- Sent several bits of data (usually 1 byte) over several wires
2- works very well over a short distances
3- Faster rate than serial data transmission
Mr kareem sharaf

Use for Data Transmission


Parallel data transmission is used in the internal
electronics of the computer system. The pathways
between the CPU and the memory all use this method of
data transmission. Integrated circuits, buses and other
internal components
Mr kareem sharaf

Data Transmission

Number three
the method of synchronisation between the
two devices

synchronous Data Transmission

 Data Transmission

synchronisation

Asynchronous synchronous
Mr kareem sharaf

synchronous Data Transmission


 is a continuous stream of data (unlike asynchronous data which is sent
in discrete groups). The data is accompanied by timing signals
generated by an internal clock. This ensures that the sender and receiver
are synchronised with each other.
 The receiver counts how many bits ( 1s and 0s) were sent and then
reassembles them into bytes of data
Mr kareem sharaf

Use for Data Transmission


 A common use for serial data transmission is (Universal Serial Bus (USB)).
 the UNIVERSAL SERIAL Bus (USB) is an asynchronous serial data
transmission method. It has quickly become the standard method for
transferring data between
 a computer and a number of devices. Essentially, the USB cable consists of:
• a four-wire shielded cable
• two of the wires are used for power and
the earth
• two of the wires are used in the
data transmission
Mr kareem sharaf

Universal Serial Bus


 When a device is plugged into a computer using one of the USB ports:
 the computer automatically detects that a device is present
 the device is automatically recognised, and the appropriate
DEVICE DRIVER is loaded up so that computer and device can
communicate effectively
 if a new device is detected, the computer will look for the
device driver which matches the device, if this is not available,
the user is prompted to download the appropriate software.
Mr kareem sharaf

benefits ( √ ) and drawbacks (x) for USB System


 Data Packets

Data that is sent over long distances is usually broken up into smaller ports known as data pockets.
The pockets of data are usually quite small, typically 64KIB, which are much easier to control thon a
long continuous stream of data.
The idea of splitting up data in this way means each pocket can be sent along o different route to its
destination. This would clearly be of great benefit if a particular transmission route was out of action
or very busy. The only obvious drawback of splitting data into pockets is the need to reassemble the
data when it reaches its destination.
 What is inside the data packet?

 A typically is split up into: > packet header > the payload > a trailer
 Header
For each packet, the packet header consists of:
» The IP address of the sending device
» The IP address of the receiving device

» The sequence number of the pocket
» Packet size HEADER
(Note: the header often also contains another value indicating how many pockets there are in total for
this transmission.)
 Payload

 For each packet, the payload consists of the actual data being sent in the packet (this is usually about
64KB)
 Trailer

For each packet, the packet trailer consists of:
» Some way of identifying the end of the packet;
This is essential to allow each packet to be
separated from each other so they travel from
sending to receiving station
» An error checking method; cyclic redundancy
checks (CRCs) are used to check data packets.
 Cyclic redundancy checks

involve the sending computer adding up all the 1-bits in the payload and
storing this as a hex value in the trailer before it is sent
* Once the pocket arrives, the receiving computer recalculates the number of
1-bits in the payload
* The computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
*If the two values match, then no transmission error has occurred;
otherwise, the packet needs to resend
 Packet Switching

Packet switching is a way of transmitting data in which o message is broken up into a number of packets.
Each pocket can then be sent independently from start to end point.
At the destination, the pockets will need to be reassembled into their correct order (using the
information sent in the header)
 At each stage in the transmission, there are nodes that contain a router. Each router will determine
which route the pocket needs to take, in order to reach its destination
 Packet Switching
Let us now consider what happens when o 
photograph, for example, is sent from computer A' to
computer 'B' the photograph will be split up into a
number of packets before it is sent.
The received message is green, blue and red
The data packets take different routes to their
destination

There will be several possible routes for the pockets, between computer A' (sender) and
computer 'B' (receiver).

Each stage in the route contains a router (or node). A router receives o data
packet and, based on the information in the header, decides where to send it
next.
 Suppose our photograph has been split up into three pockets that
have been sent in the following order:

 » Each pocket will follow its own path (route)
 » Routers will determine the route of each pocket
 » Routing selection depends on the number of pockets waiting to be processed at
each node

 » The shortest possible path available is always selected - this may not
always be the shortest path that Could be taken, since certain ports of the
route may be too busy or not suitable, unfortunately, packets on reach the
destination in a different order to that in which they were sent.
 Advantages of Packet Switching

» There is no need to tie up a single communication line
» During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone
network might stop working, emails and texts can still be
sent via packet switching by simply re-routing pockets
» It is relatively easy to expand package usage
» A high data transmission rate is possible.
» Devices of different speeds can communicate
Disadvantages of Packet Switching

» Packets can be lost and need to be re-sent
» This method is not so good for some types of data
streams (e.g., real-time video streams can lose frames
due to the way packets arrive out of sequence)
» There is a delay at the destination whilst the pockets
are being re-ordered.
 Hopping and Hop Numbers

 Sometimes it is possible for packets to get lost because they keep
 'Bouncing' around from router to router and never actually reach their destination.
Eventually the network would just grind to a halt as the number of lost packets mount
up, clogging up the system. To overcome this, a method called hopping is used. A hop
number is added to the header of each packet, and this number is reduced by 1 every
time it leaves a router.
 Hopping and Hop Numbers
 Each packet has a maximum hop number to start with. Once a hop number reaches
zero, and the packet hasn’t reached its destination, then the packet is deleted when it
reaches the next router. The missing packets will then be flagged by the receiving
computer and a request to re- send these pockets will be made
Mr kareem sharaf

Error-checking methods

 Checking for errors is important since computers aren't able to check
that text
 is correct; they can only recognise whether a word is in their built-in
dictionary or not
 The methods covered in this section are :
 • parity checking
 • automatic repeat request (ARQ)
 • checksum
 • echo checking.
Mr kareem sharaf

Parity checking

PARITY CHECKING is one method used to check whether
data has been changed or corrupted following transmission
from one device or medium to another device or medium.
Mr kareem sharaf

Past paper

 State what is meant by the terms:
 Parallel data
transmission .........................................................................................................
 ..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..
 Serial data
transmission ...........................................................................................................
 ..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..
Mr kareem sharaf

Past paper

 Give one benefit of each type of data transmission.
 Parallel data transmission
 Benefit ..................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
.........................................
 Serial data transmission
 Benefit ..................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
.........................................
Mr kareem sharaf

Past paper

 Give one application of each type of data transmission. Each application
must be different.
 Parallel data transmission
 Application .........................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...........................................
 Serial data transmission
 Application .........................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...........................................
Mr kareem sharaf

Parity Checking System


Parity
Checking

Odd Even
Mr kareem sharaf

Even parity System


 A byte of data, for example, is allocated a PARITY BIT. This is allocated
before transmission takes place. Systems that use EVEN PARITY have
an even number of 1-bits;
 If this byte is using even parity, then the parity bit needs to be O since
there is already an even number of I -bits

parity System Even parity System

Mr kareem sharaf

Odd parity System


 A byte of data, for example, is allocated a PARITY BIT. This is allocated
before transmission takes place. systems that use ODD PARITY have an
odd number of 1-bits
 If odd parity is being used, then the parity bit needs to be I to make the
number of I -bits odd

parity System Odd parity System

Mr kareem sharaf

THE PROTOCOL

 rules and instructions that each computer follows. A specific set of
communication rules Before data is transferred, an agreement is made
between sender and receiver regarding which of the two types of parity
are used. If a byte has been transmitted from 'A' to 'B', and even parity is
used,
 an error would be flagged if the byte now had an odd number of I-bits
at the receiver's end
Mr kareem sharaf

EXAMPLE 1
three I -bits, which means it now has
 In this case, the receiver's byte has
odd parity whilst the byte from the sender had even parity ( four I-bits).
This clearly means an error has occurred during the transmission of the
data. The error is detected by the computer recalculating the parity of the
byte sent. If even parity has been agreed between sender and receiver,
then a change of parity in the received byte indicates that a transmission
error has occurred.

 Sender’s byte
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
 Receiver's byte
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
Mr kareem sharaf
EXAMPLE 1

 In this example, nine bytes of data have been transmitted. Agreement has been made that even
parity will be used. Another byte, known as the PARITY BITE, has also been sent. This byte
consists entirely of the parity bits produced by the vertical parity check. The parity byte also
indicates the end of the block of data. The following table shows how the data arrived at the
receiving end:
 byte 8 (row 8 ) has
incorrect parity
(there are three 1-bits)
• bit 5 (column 5 )
also has incorrect
parity (there are
five 1-bits).
 Answer that

 The following block of data was received after transmission from a remote computer;
odd parity Being used by both sender and receiver. One of the bits has been changed
during the transmission stage. Locate where this error is and suggest a Corrected byte
value
Mr kareem sharaf
Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ)

 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is another method used to check
whether data has been correctly transmitted.
 It uses an ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (a message sent by the receiver
indicating that data has been received correctly) and Timeout (this is the
time allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is received).
 If an acknowledgement isn't sent back to the sender before time out
occurs, then the message is automatically resent.
Mr kareem sharaf

Checksum

 CHECKSUM is another way to check if data has been changed or
corrupted following data transmission. 1-Data is sent in blocks and an
additional value, the checksum, is also 2- sent at the end of the block of
data. To 3-explain how this works, we will assume the checksum of a
block of data. is I byte in length. This gives a maximum value of28 - 1
(i.e. 255 ). 111e value 0000 0000 is ignored in this calculation
Mr kareem sharaf

Checksum

 Answer way must be save it
 1-Divide the sum X add the bytes by 256
 2-round the answer down to the nearest whole number Y
 3- Z = Y * 256
 4- Calculate the difference ( X – Z )
 5- The value is the checksum
Mr kareem sharaf

Example 1

 If the sum of all the bytes in the transmitted block of data is<= 255, then
the checksum is this value. However, if the Sum of all the bytes in the
data block> 255, then the checksum Suppose the value of X is 1185
 Answer:
 1- to 1185/256 = 4.629
 2- Rounding down nearest whole number gives Y = 4
 3- Multiplying by 256 gives Z = Y * 256 = 1024
 4- The difference (X - Z) gives the checksum: (ll85 - 1024) = 161
 5- This gives the checksum = 161
Mr kareem sharaf

Echo check

 With ECHO CHECK, when data is sent to another device, this data is
sent back again to the sender. The sender compares the two sets of data
to check if any errors occurred during the transmission process. As you
will have no doubt worked out, this isn't very reliable. If the two sets of
data are different, it isn't known whether the error occurred when
sending the data in the first place, or if the error occurred when sending
the data back for checking! However, if no errors occurred then it is
another way to check that the data was transmitted correctly.
Mr kareem sharaf

Internet technologies

 The internet is a world wide system of computer networks and
computers. All computers attached to the internet can communicate
with each other providing a number of rules and protocols are adhered
to.
Mr kareem sharaf

Internet Service Provider (ISP)


 these are companies that provide the user with access to the inter
 The ISP will set up a user account which will
 contain a username and a password; most ISPs also gi,·e the user an
email address net. A monthly fee is usually charged for tills service
Mr kareem sharaf

Internet Protocol (IP) Address


 Each device on the internet is given a unique address known as the
Internet
 PROTOCOL ( IP) ADDRESS. This is a 32-bit number which is usually
written in the
 form: 109.108.158.1
 A home computer is given an IP address when it connects to the
internet. This is assigned by the ISP and is unique for this computer
Mr kareem sharaf
IP addresses and MAC
addresses

 This is a unique number that identifies a device connected to the
internet. So what is the difference between an IP address and a MAC
address? The IP address gives the location of a device on the internet,
whereas the MAC address identifies
 the device connected to the internet.
Mr kareem sharaf

Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)


c:tr>
 H YPERTEXT MARK-UP LANGUAGE (H TML) is
used when writing and
c:td>c:hl>Small carc:/hJ>
 developing web pages. HTML isn't a programming c:hl>Used car salesc:/hl>
language but is simply a mark-up language. A mark- c:h2>Cars from $500c:/h2>
up language is used in the processing, definition and c:br>c:h2>Cash sales
presentation of text
 HTML uses <tags> which are used to bracket a piece onlyc:/h2>c:/td>c:/br>
of code; for example, <td> starts a standard cell in an c:/tr>
HTML table c:colgroup>
c:col span•"2"
style•"background-
color,red"
Mr kareem sharaf

Hypertext transfer protocol (http)


 a set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring files across
the internet. when some form of security

Web browsers
software which allows a user to display a web page on their computer screen . Web browsers
interpret or translate the HTML code from websites and show the result of the translation
the following features:
• they have a HOME page
• they have the ability to store a user's favorite websites/pages
• they keep a history of the websites visited by the user
• they give the ability to go backward and forward to websites opened .
Mr kareem sharaf
Web browsers


The web browser will break up the URL into three parts:
http://www.hoddereducation.eo.uk/igcsc_comp11ter_science

HTTP: = This the protocol used

www = World wide wed
www.hoddereducation.eo.uk/ = this is the web server’s name
igcsc_comp11ter_science = this is the file name often the web page
Mr kareem sharaf

Past paper
 Bytes of data transferred using a 
serial cable are checked for errors at the
receiving end using an
 even parity check.
 Can these bytes of data pass the even parity check?
 (a) 01010101
 ……………………………………………………………………………..
 (b) 11001000
 …………………………………………………………………………….
 (c) How can any errors be corrected?
 ………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
 ………………………………………………………………………………………