Chapter 6: Sub surface drainage systems

Contents
 Types of sub surface drainage systems
 Design of sub-surface drainage systems
 Drain Depth and Spacing
6.1. Types of sub surface drainage systems
 Subsurface drainage aims at controlling the water table and soil salinity.
 The controlling may be achieved by tube well drainage, open drains or
pipe drains.
 Tubewell drainage are applied only in very specific conditions.
Open and pipe drains: The usual choice for subsurface drainage is
therefore between open drains and pipe drains.
 This choice has to be made at two levels: for field drains and for
collectors.
 Open drains have the advantage that they can receive overland flow
directly, but the disadvantages often outweigh the advantages.
 The main disadvantages of open drains are:
 the loss of land,
 interference with the irrigation system,
 the splitting-up of the land into small parcels
 which hampers mechanized farming operations, and a maintenance
burden.
 Tubewell drainage is the technique of
controlling the water table and salinity in
agricultural areas by pumping, from a series of
wells, an amount of groundwater equal to the
drainage requirement.
6.2. Design of sub-surface drainage systems
The design of a subsurface drainage system
requires developing criteria that:
• Minimize deep percolation loss through
improved irrigation water management( source
control).
• Characterized by establishing the water table
depth at the mid point between laterals and the
drainage requirement ( specify the depth of
water to be removed in a 24-h period).
Sub surface drainage design steps
 Investigating –soil profile, geo hydrologic and
ground water quality
 Measuring hydraulic conductivity of the root
zone soil
 Reviewing and analyzing- climatic data of the
area.
 Selecting appropriate crop / cropping pattern
 Estimating- drainage requirement
 Designing- drain depth placement and
determining the lateral drain spacing.
Estimation of drainage requirement
Steps
• Collecting long term rainfall and other weather data for the
project area.
• Calculate the daily average rainfall, evaporation, and
evapotranspiration rate for the target crop season.
• Perform water balance
• Under natural rainfall condition, water balance can be expressed
as:
P=Et+R+D
D=P-Et-R
Where, average daily rainfall(mm/day)
 Et= evapotranspiration rate (mm/day)
 R= surface runoff amount(mm/day)
 D= deep percolation ( subsurface drainage amount)(mm/day)
DRAIN-SPACING EQUATIONS
Design Approaches
• The depth and spacing of field drains are usually
determined with the help of drainage equations.
• The data needed for these calculations include (figure 6.1):
 Agricultural requirements i.e. the depth of the water table
and the depth of the root zone;
 Soil characteristics i.e. the hydraulic conductivity and depth
to the impermeable layer, and the
hydrological factors like the drainage surplus, and
 Engineering factors i.e. construction methods and
construction machinery.
Figure 6.1 Input factors for the
calculation of drain spacing
 The drainage equations are based on several assumptions thus it should
be kept in mind that all solutions are approximations, however, their
accuracy is such that their application is fully justified.
 Two approaches can be distinguished: the steady state approach and the
unsteady state approach.
Steady-state Approach
 The steady state equations are derived under the assumption that the
recharge to the groundwater equals the drain discharge and
consequently that the water table remains in the same position.

• The most well-known steady state equation is the Hooghoudt Equation.

Unsteady-state Approach
 In reality the recharge to the water table varies in
time and consequently the flow of groundwater
towards the drains is not steady.
 An example of the unsteady state approach is the
Glover-Dumm Equation.
Steady state equations
 Steady constant flow occurs through the soil to the
drain
 Discharge equals to the drain
Unsteady equations
 All the parameters varies
• The Hooghoudt formula is based on the Duput
Forcheimer assumptions. The assumptions of
Hooghoudt are:
• The soil is homogenous and Isotropic.
• Darcy law is Valid for flow of water through
soil in to drain.
• An impermeable layer underlines the drain
• The hydraulic gradient at any point in the flow
regime is equal to the slope of the water table
above the point.
• The drain have no entrance resistance
Hooghoudt Equation
 The Hooghoudt Equation describes the flow of
groundwater to vertically walled drains reaching an
impervious layer (Figure 6.2):
 ……..eqn 6.1
where,
 q= discharge rate per unit horizontal surface area
(m/d)
 L=drain spacing (m)
 K=hydraulic conductivity of the soil (m/d)
 D= elevation of the water level in the drain (m)
 h=elevation of the water table midway between the
drains (m)
• Figure 6.1 Flow towards vertical-walled drains reaching the impervious
layer( fully penetrating).
 If the pipe or open drains do not
reach the impervious layer( if it is
not fully penetrating), the flow
lines will converge towards the
drain and will thus no longer be
horizontal (Figure 6.3 A).
 Hooghoudt found a solution that
makes it possible to use the
concept of horizontal flow by
introducing two schematisations:
 He assumed an imaginary Figure 6.3 The concept of the equivalent depth d in which the combination of
horizontal and radial flow (A) is transformed into an equivalent horizontal flow (B).

impervious layer above the real

one (Figure 6.3 B);
 He replaced the pipe drains by
imaginary ditches with their
bottoms on the imaginary
impervious layer.
 Under these assumptions the flow towards the
drains can still be expressed by Equation 6.1,
simply by replacing the actual depth to the
impervious layer (D) by a smaller equivalent
depth (d).
 This equivalent depth d represents the
imaginary thinner soil layer through which the
same amount of water will flow per unit time
as in the actual situation.
Equation 6.1 can be rewritten as
 If the soil profile consists of two layers with
different hydraulic conductivity and if the water
level in the drain at the interface between the
soil layers.
q=
Where,
 Kt hydraulic conductivity of the layer above
drain level (m/d).
 Kb hydraulic conductivity of the layer below
drain level (m/d).
 Hooghoudt derived a relation between the equivalent
depth (d) and, respectively, the spacing (L), the depth to
the impervious layer (D), and the radius of the drain (r).
 The equivalent depth d is tabulated for pipe radius of
0.1m
 Equivalent depth can be calculated for pipes with
radius other than 0.1m.

L
d 8
 
2 1  D 
L  D 2  ln  
  ro 2 
Table 6.1. Values for the equivalent depth d of Hooghoudt for r = 0.1 m, D and L in m
 Example 1
In an irrigated area, high water tables occur. A subsurface drainage
system will be installed to control the water table under the
following conditions:
Agricultural drainage criteria:
- Design discharge of 1 mm/d;
- The depth of the water table midway between the drains is to be
kept at 1.0 m below soil surface.
Technical criteria:
- Drains will be installed at a depth of 2 m
- PVC drainpipes with a radius of 0.10 m will be used.
- A deep boring has revealed that there is a layer of low conductivity
at 6.8 m, which can be regarded as the impervious layer.
- Auger hole measurements were made to calculate the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil above the impervious layer. The estimated
value of the hydraulic conductivity of this layer is 0.14 m/d. If we
assume a homogeneous soil profile. Using the Hooghoudt Equation
calculate the drain spacing.
Figure : The calculation of the drain spacing in a one-layered soil profile
• Substitution of the above values in Equation 5 yields

= 1120 x d + 560
As the equivalent depth d is a function of D, L and r, we can only solve this quadratic equation in
L by trial and error.
First estimate: L = 75 m.
We can read the equivalent depth d from Table 6:
d = 3.04 + 8/10 (3.49-3.04) = 3.40 m.
Thus = 1120 x 3.40 + 560 = 4368 m 2. This is not in agreement with L2 = = 5625 m 2.
Apparently the spacing of 75 m is too wide.
Second estimate: L = 50 m and read from Table 6:
d = 2.71 + 8/10 (3.02-2.71) = 2.96 m.
Thus L2 = 1120 x 2.96 + 560 = 3875 m 2. This is not in agreement with L2 = 502 = 2500 m 2, a
spacing of 50 m is too close.
Third estimate: L = 62.5 m and read from Table 6:
d = (d75 + d50)/2 = (3.40 + 2.96)/2 = 3.18 m.
Thus = 1120 x 3.18 + 560 = 4121 m 2. This is sufficient close to = 62.52 = 3906 m2, so we can
select a spacing of 63 m.
Note: The series solution presented in Figure 35 results in a spacing of 64 m.
 Unsteady state Approach
 Unlike the steady state flow, the drainage water flow is considered to have unbalance discharge and
recharge in unsteady state flow.
 This is the case in areas under periodic irrigation and high intensity rainfall
 Glover-Dumm Equation
The Glover-Dumm Equation describes the height of the water table midway between the drains under the
assumption that the recharge is zero:
• According to Glover-Dumm equation, the mid spacing water table head ht at time t relates to the head (at
t=0).
• , where
Where,
• ht=height of the watertable midway between the drains at t > 0 (m)
• = initial height of the watertable at t=0 (m)
• =reaction factor (d-1)
• K= hydraulic conductivity (m/d)
• d=equivalent depth of the soil layer below drain level (m)
• u=drainable pore space (m3/m3)
• L=drain spacing (m
According to Glover-Dumm, the spacing between the drain can be estimated by
Example 2
In an irrigated area a drainage system is needed to control the watertable under the following
conditions:
Agricultural drainage criteria:
- Maximum permissible height of the watertable is 1 m below soil surface;
- Irrigation water is applied every 10 days and the field application losses percolating to
Watertable are 25 mm for each irrigation.
Technical design criteria:
- Drains are installed at a depth of 1.8 m;
- PVC drainpipes with radius (r) of 0.10 m are used.
Soil data:
- Depth of the impervious layer is 9.5 m below soil surface;
- Average hydraulic conductivity of the top 9.8 m of the soil is 1.0 m/d and the drainable pore
space u = 0.05.
If we assume that the field application losses can be considered as an instantaneous recharge, Ri =
0.025 m,
The rise of the water table is:
Dh = Ri/ u = 0.025/0.05 = 0.5 m.
If we also assume, that after irrigation, the watertable has risen to its maximum permissible
height, we know (Figure below):
ho = 1.8 - 1.0 = 0.8 m
The water level must be lowered by 0.5 m during the next 10 days, thus:
h10 = h0 - Dh = 0.8 - 0.5 = 0.3 m.
• Figure The calculation of drain spacing under
unsteady conditions (Example )
• Thus we have the following data:
K = 1.0 m/d
u = 0.05
D = 9.5 - 1.8 = 7.7 m
r = 0.10 m
h0 = 0.8 m
h10 = 0.3 m
t = 10 days
Substitute the above data in Equation 11 gives an expression of the drain spacing L:
• =>=
As we know for D and r= the equivalent depth d can be obtained from Table 6 and
we can find L by trial and error:
First estimate: L = 80 m, D = 7.7 m, from Table 6 we read:
d = 4.23 + 7/10 (4.49 - 4.23) = 4.41 m
•
=6400
Second estimate: L = 90 m, D = 7.7 m, from Table 6 we read:
d = 4.42 + 7/10 (4.72 - 4.42) = 4.63 m
=8100 it is almost equal, so the spacing between the drain will be 90 m.
 Comparison of steady & Un steady state equations
 the question of whether to use steady or unsteady state
drainage equation to determine the drain spacing mainly
depends on the availability of data.
 Unsteady state equation is only applied for homogeneous soil
profile and it considers drainable pore space which is
complicated to measure. So it is with huge limitation.

26
 CHAPTER SEVEN

Soil Salinity

 Introduction
 Leaching requirement
 Reclamation (temporary and permanent)
Soil Salinity
• Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil. Salts occur
naturally within soils and water.
• The process of soils becoming salty is known as salinization
or salination.
• Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral
weathering.
• It can also cause through artificial processes such as
irrigation.
• Salty (saline) soils are soils that have a high salt content.
• The predominant salt is normally sodium chloride (NaCl,
"table salt"). Saline soils are therefore also saline sodic soils.
• Soil salinity is a measure of the concentration of all the
soluble salts in soil water, and is usually expressed as
electrical conductivity (EC).
 Causes of soil salinity
 Primary cause
• The primary cause of salinization is the salt brought in with
irrigation water.
• All irrigation water taken from rivers or groundwater contains
salts that remain behind in the soil after the water has
evaporated.
• For example, assuming irrigation water with a low salt
concentration of 0.3 g/l (equal to 0.3 kg/m3, corresponding to an
electric conductivity, EC, of about 0.5 dS/m) and a modest annual
supply of irrigation water of 10,000 m3/ha (almost 3 mm/day)
brings 3,000 kg salt/ha each year.
• In the absence of sufficient natural drainage (as in waterlogged
soils) and without a proper leaching and drainage program to
remove salts, this would lead in the long run to a high soil salinity
and reduced crop yields in the long run.
• Normally, the salinization of agricultural land affects a considerable area of irrigation

projects, on the order of 20 to 30%.

• Saline soils reduce the crop yield. Salinity is among the major problems threatening the

sustainability of irrigated agriculture

Secondary cause
• The secondary cause of salinization is waterlogging in irrigated land.

• Irrigation causes changes to the natural water balance of irrigated lands.

• The maximum attainable irrigation efficiency is about 70% but usually it is less than 60%.

This means that minimum 30%, but usually more than 40% of the irrigation water is not

evaporated and it deep percolates.

• Most of the water lost this way is stored underground. Many aquifers cannot absorb and

transport these quantities of water and so the water table rises leading to water logging.
 Waterlogging causes three problems:
• The shallow water table and lack of
oxygenation of the root zone reduces the yield
of most crops.
• It leads to an accumulation of salts brought
in with the irrigation water as their removal
through the aquifer is blocked.
• With the upward capillary rise of groundwater
more salts are brought into the soil and the
salination is aggravated.
Measurement
 The most reliable method to determine soil salinity is
obtained by measuring the salt concentration in soil water
at field capacity.
 The other and most commonly used evaluation of soil
salinity is the soil saturation extract.
 Preparing a saturated paste by adding water to dry soil
and then obtain saturation extract by applying suction
to the saturated paste till the liquid limit.
 The soil salinity is measure with Electrical conductivity(EC)
the salt content of soil is expressed by decisiemens per meter
(dS/m).
Similarly, the ion concentration is expressed in mg/lit. (TDS)

32
Conversion of units
Soil Salinity level
Salt concentration of the soil water (saturation Salinity level
extract)
TDS (g/l)

0–3 Non saline

3–6 Slightly saline

6 – 12 Medium saline

>12 Highly saline

 Salinity is usually expressed in terms of Electrical

Conductivity (EC) in decisiemens per meter (dS/m), or Total
Dissolved Solid in mg/l.
 The total dissolved solids (TDS) can be assessed by
measuring the electrical conductivity (EC).
 The EC-value and TDS (mg/L)are linearly related and given
by:
TDS  640 EC
 Salinity control
• Drainage is the primary method of controlling soil
salinity.
• The system should permit a small fraction of the
irrigation water (about 10 to 20 percent, the drainage or
leaching fraction) to be drained and discharged out of the
irrigation project.
• The discharge of salty drainage water may pose
environmental problems to downstream areas. The
environmental hazards must be considered very carefully
and, if necessary mitigating measures must be taken. If
possible, the drainage must be limited to wet seasons
only, when the salty effluent inflicts the least harm.
• The drainage system designed to evacuate salty
water also lowers the water table.
 Irrigation water quality and crop tolerance
• Irrigation water is not totally pure; it has salt. The salt
content however is limited to a maximum allowable value
that the crop can resist.
• After irrigation, the water which is added to the soil is
used by the crop or evaporates directly from the moist soil.
The salt, however, is left behind in the soil.
• If not removed, it accumulates in the soil; this process is
called salinization. Very salty soils are sometimes
recognizable by a white layer of dry salt on the soil
surface.
• Different crops have different response to salinity of the soil.
• Crops like barley, cotton, sugar beet, spinach and asparagus
are highly tolerant to salinity whereas maize, wheat, rice,
tomato, potato, onion and grape are moderately tolerant.
• Peas, beans, orange, sugarcane and apple are very sensitive to
salinity. When generalized, irrigation water quality that is
tolerated by crops is salinity level with salt concentration less
than 0.5 g/l. Salt concentration and its risk on crops
Salt concentration of the Soil salinization risk Restriction on use
irrigation water in g/l

Less than 0.5 g/l no risk no restriction on its use

0.5 - 2 g/l slight to moderate should be used with appropriate
risk water management practices
more than 2 g/l high risk not generally advised for use
unless consulted with specialists
Leaching Requirement
 For soils in arid regions when there is a
salt in the irrigation water, leaching is
required to maintain a favorable salt
balance in the root zone.
 The leaching requirement depends on
the salinity of irrigation water and the
crop tolerance to soil salinity.
Leaching requirement is defined as the percentage of the
irrigation water and precipitation that must pass through the
root zone to control salt a specified level.
LR=
Where,
LR= Leaching requirement in percentage
Ecdw=Electrical conductivity drainage water( seepage
water)
Eciw=Electrical conductivity of irrigation water
Reclamation

The process and practices involved in bringing saline and

alkali soils into productive condition are known as
reclamation-measures

A. Reclamation on temporary basis can be done by

– By removing the salt crust from the surface of the soil
– Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by adding other salts
B. Permanent Reclamation Procedures
– By lowering water table ( if high )
– Leaching of salts in saline soils by providing adequate
sub-surface drainage
– Soil amendments: to use gypsum and organic matter to
improve soil structure and reduce the impact of salinity.
– Suitable management practices i.e implement efficient
irrigation practice.