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All living organisms are made up of a fundamental unit called the cell. The cell
consists of organic and inorganic compounds and elemental analysis of the cell shows
that it is made of various elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine etc. All
carbon-containing compounds found in living organisms are termed as biomolecules.
.
blocks of nucleotides)
Carbohydrate
Sub sections :
• 2.1 Properties & classification
• 2.2 Stereoisomers
• 2.3 Cyclic structure
• 2.4 Important Reactions
• 2.5 Important monosach
• 2.6 glycoproteins and proteoglycans
• 2.7 Monosaccharide derivatives
2.1 Monosach Properties& classification
• Colorless, crystalline solids
• Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar
solvents
• One of the carbon atoms is double-bonded to an
oxygen atom to form a carbonyl group; each of
the other carbon atoms has a hydroxyl group.
• Carbohydrates with an aldehyde (-CHO) functional
group are called aldoses
e.g. glyceraldehyde (CH2OH-CHOH-CHO)
• ISOMERS- compounds that have the same chemical formula e.g. fructose,
glucose, mannose, and galactose are isomers of each other having
formula C6H12O6.
• EPIMERS- refer to sugars whose configuration differ around one specific
carbon atom e.g. glucose and galactose are C-4 epimers and glucose and
mannose are C-2 epimers.
• ENANTIOMERS- a special type of isomerism found in pairs of structures
that are mirror images of each other. The mirror images are termed as
enantiomers and the two members are designated as D- and L- sugar. The
vast majority of sugars in humans are D-sugars.
• CYCLIZATION OF SUGARS- most monosaccharides with 5 or more carbon
atoms are predominately found in a ring form, where the aldehyde or
ketone group has reacted with an alcoholic group on the same sugar
group to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal ring.
Pyranose ring- if the ring has 5 carbons and 1 oxygen.
Furanose ring- if the ring is 5-membered (4 carbons and 1 oxygen
2.4.IMPORTANT REACTIONS IN MONOSACCHARIDES
1. Mutarotation
2. Oxidation
3. Reduction
4. Isomerization
5. Esterification
6. Glycoside formation
IMPORTANT REACTIONS IN MONOSACCHARIDES
Details
1. Mutarotation –
alfa and beta forms of sugars are readily interconverted when dissolved in water
2 Oxidation and reduction
in presence of oxidising agents, metal ions (Cu2+) and enzymes, monosacchs undergo several
oxidation reactions e.g. Oxidation of aldehyde group (R-CHO) yields aldonic acid; of terminal
CH2OH (alcohol) yields uronic acid; and of both the aldehyde and CH2OH gives aldaric acid.
The carbonyl groups in both aldonic and uronic can react with an OH group in the sam
3 REDUCTION
reduction of the aldehyde and ketone groups of monosacchs yield sugar alcohols (alditols)
Sugar alcohols e.g.sorbitol.
IMPORTANT REACTIONS (Cont)
4. ISOMERIZATION
Monosaccharides undergo several types of isomerization e.g. D-glucose in alkaline solution for several
hours containn D-mannose and D-fructose. The conversion of glucose to mannose is termed s
epimerization.
5 ESTERIFICATION
Free OH groups of carbohydrates react with acids to form esters. This reaction Can change the physical and
chemical propteries of sugar.
6. GLYCOSIDE FORMATION-
Hemiacetals and hemiketals reaction with alcohols to form the corressponding aceta or ketal (p.210 of
Text).On the contrary when a cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal form of monosaccharide reacts with alcohol,
the new linkage is called glycosidic linkage and the compound glycoside.
Glycosides are formed when the anomeric (hemiac-etal or hemiketal)
hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide undergoes condensation with the
hydroxyl group of a second molecule, with the elimination of water. ... The
linkage resulting from such a reaction is known as a glycosidic bond.
https://youtu.be/fUKUwADHZt8
Isomerism: Classification # 1. D and L:
The designation of an isomer as D- or L-
form is determined by its spatial
configuration to the parent compound.
When the OH group around the carbon
atom adjacent to the terminal primary alco
hol carbon (carbon atom 5 in glucose) is on
the right, the sugar is a member of the D
series.
• FRUCTOSE
• D-fructose (levulose) is often referred as fruit sugar and
is found in some vegetables and honey
• This molecule is an important member of ketose
member of sugars
• It is twice as sweet as sucrose (per gram basis) and is
used as sweeting agent in processed food products
• It is present in large amounts in male reproductive tract
and is synthesised in the seminal vesicles.
Important monosaccharides. Cont....
• GALACTOSE
• is necessary to synthesize a variety of biomolecules
(lactose-in mammalary glands, glycolipids, certain
phospholipids, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins)
• Galactose and glucose are epimers at carbon 4 and
interconversion is catalysed by enzyme epimerase.
• Medical problems – galactosemia (genetic
disorder) where enzyme to metabolize galactose is
missing; accumulation of galactose in the body can
cause liver damage, cataracts, and severe mental
retardation
2.7.MONOSACCHARIDE DERVATIVES
• URONIC ACIDS – formed when terminal
CH2OH group of a mono sugar is oxidised
• Important acids in animals – D-glucuronic
acid and its epimer L-iduronic acid
• In liver cells glucuronic acid combines with
steroids, certain drugs, and bilirubin to
improve water solubility therby helping the
removal of waste products from the body
• These acids are abundant in the connective
tissue carbohydrate components.
Mono sugar derivatives
• AMINO SUGARS –
• Sugars in which a hydroxyl group (common
on carbon 2) is replaced by an amino
group e.g. D-glucosamine and D-
galactosamine
• common constituents of complex
carbohydrate molecule found attached to
cellular proteins and lipids
• Amino acids are often acetylated e.g. N-
acetyl-glucosamine.
Mono sugar derivatives
• DEOXYSUGARS
• monosaccharides in which an - H has replaced an
– OH group
• Important sugars: L-fucose (formed from D-
mannose by reduction reactions) and 2-deoxy-D-
ribose
• L-fucose – found among carbohydrate
components of glycoproteins, such as those of
the ABO blood group determinates on the
surface of red blood cells
• 2-deoxyribose is the pentose sugar component of
DNA.
GLYCOSIDES
• Monosaccharides can be linked by glycosidic bonds (joining
of 2 hydroxyl groups of sugars by splitting out water molecule)
to create larger structures.
• Disaccharides contain 2 monosaccharides e.g. lactose
(galactose+glucose); maltose (glucose+glucose);
sucrose (glucose+fructose)
• Oligosaccharides – 3 to 12 monosaccharides units e.g.
glycoproteins
• Polysaccharides – more than 12 monosaccharides units e.g.
glycogen (homopolysaccharide) having hundreds of sugar
units; glycosaminoglycans (heteropolysaccharides) containing
a number of different monosaccharides species.
DISACCHARIDES
AND
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
DISACCHARIDES AND
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• Cnfigurations: alfa or beta ( 1,4, glycosidic
bonds or linkages; other linkages 1,1; 1,2;
1,3; 1,6)
• Digestion aided by enzymes. Defficiency of
any one enzyme causes unpleasant
symptoms (fermentation) in colon produces
gas [bloating of cramps].
• Most common defficiency, an ancestoral
disorder, lactose intolerance caused by
reduced synthesis of lactase
Important sugars of Disaccharides
• LACTOSE
(milk sugar) disaccharide found in milk; composed of one
molecule of galactose and glucose linked through beta(1,4)
glycosidic linkage; because of the hemiacetal group of the glucose
component, lactose is a reducing sugar
Lactose intolerance
• Lactose (milk sugar) in infants is hydrolyzed by
intestinal enzyme lactase to its component
monosacch for absorption into the bloodstream
(galactose epimerized to glucose).
• Most adult mammals have low levels of beta-
galactosidase. Hence, much of the lactose they
ingest moves to the colon, where bacterial
fermentation generates large quantities of CO2, H2
and irritating organic acids.
• These products cause painful digestive upset
known as lactose intolerance and is common in the
African and Asian decent.
MALTOSE ( malt sugar)
An intermediate product of starch hydrolysis; it is a
disaccharide with an alfa(1,4) glycosidic linkage between
two D-glucose molecules; in solution the free anomeric
carbon undergoes mutarotation resulting in an equilibrium
mixture of alfa and beta – maltoses; it does not occur freely
in nature
• SUCROSE
common table sugar: cane sugar or beet sugar produced in the
leaves and stems of plants; it is a disaccharide containing both
alfa-glucose and beta-fructose residues linked by
alfa,beta(1,2)glycosidic bond.
• CELLOBIOSE
degradation product of cellulose containing two
molecules of glucose linked by a beta (1,4)
glycosidic bond; it does not occur freely in nature
OLIGOSACCHARIDE SUGARS
Hyaluronic acid
Occurence : synovial fluid, ECM of loose connective
tissue
Hyaluronic acid is unique among the GAGs because
it does not contain any sulfate and is not found
covalently attached to proteins. It forms non-
covalently linked complexes with proteoglycans in
the ECM.
Hyaluronic acid polymers are very large (100 -
10,000 kD) and can displace a large volume of
water.
Hyaluronic acid (D-glucuronate + GlcNAc)
Dermatan sulfate (L-iduronate + GlcNAc sulfate)
• The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand
forming the 3D mesh-like layer.