LESSON 10

Independent
Clauses
The structures practiced in this lesson are the ones that are most often tested in the Structure section.
Approximately 20 percent of all problems in the section (usually three or four per test) involve
incomplete main clauses.

ABOUT CLAUSES
All sentences consist of one or more clauses. A simple sentence consists of one clause. For
example: People need vitamins. (S + V + O) / (S + V)
The man took a vitamin pill.
Judy lives in northern California.
In the summer, Tom walks to his office.
A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
(such as a n d and b u t ). Such as:
The man took a vitamin pill, and he drank a glass of orange juice. (
S V O conj S V O)
Judy lives in northern California now, but she was raised in Ohio.
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (called the main clause) and a subordinate
(dependent) clause. Subordinate clauses may be adverb clauses, noun clauses, or adjective clauses. In
the sentences below, the independent clauses are italicized:
The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold. (independent clause + adverb clause)
I didn’t realize that Nancy was here. (noun clause)
Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the
summer. (independent clause + adjective clause)
The emphasis in this chapter, however, is on the basic components of independent clauses.

MISSING SUBJECTS, VERBS, OBJECTS,

AND COMPLEMENTS
All clauses have a subject and a verb. Clauses with an action verb often
take a direct object as well.
Subjec Verb Object
t need vitamins
People .
The verb missing from an independent clause may be a single-word verb ( n e e d , w a s , t o o k , h a d ,
w a l k e d ) or a verb phrase consisting of one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb ( w i l l n e e d , h a s
b e e n , s h o u l d t a k e , w o u l d h a v e h a d , h a d w a l k e d ). The verbs may be active (n e e d , t a k e ) or
passive ( w a s n e e d e d ,
is ta ken ) .
The missing subject and direct object may be a noun (p e o p le , v i t a m i n s , To m ), a noun phrase
(s o m e f a m o u s p eo p le , a v i t a m i n pill, m y frie n d To m ), or a pronoun ( h e , s h e , it, and t h e y are
subject pronouns; h i m , h e r , it, and t h e m are object pronouns).
 After the verb t o b e and certain other nonaction verbs, a subject complement is used rather than
a direct object. (Subject complements are also known as predicate nominatives and predicate
adjectives.)
Subject Verb is Compleme
She seemed nt an
The teacher architect.
upset.
In the Structure section of TOEFL test, it is common for any of these elements or a combination of two
or more of these elements to be missing from the stem. The most common problem in structure
involves a missing verb. A missing subject and a missing subject-verb combination are common as
well. The missing element may also be part, of rather than all of, the verb or noun phrase.

Sample Items
The art of storytelling almost as old as humanity.
(A) that is
(B) is
(C) it is
(D) being
The correct answer is (B). It supplies the missing verb. Choice (A) is incorrect because the word
that is used to connect a relative clause to a main clause; in this sentence, there is only one verb, so
there can only be one clause. Choice (C) is incorrect because there is an unnecessary repetition of
the subject (The art of storytelling it . . .). Choice (D) is not correct because an -ing form (being)
cannot be the main verb of a clause.

a few of the sounds produced by insects can be heard by humans.

(A) Only
(B) There are only
(C) That only
(D) With only
The correct answer is (A). It completes the noun phrase that is the subject of the sentence. The
expletive There in choice (B) is incorrectly used. In choice (C), the word That creates a noun clause,
but each clause must have its own verb. (Produced is used as a participle, not a main verb, in this
sentence.) Choice (D) is incorrect because a preposition may not be used directly before the subject.

when lava cools very rapidly.

(A) Because pumice is formed
(B) To form pumice
(C) Pumice is formed
(D) Forming pumice
The correct answer is (C). It supplies an independent clause to join to the adverb clause when
lava cools very rapidly. Choice (A) consists of an adverb clause; two adverb clauses cannot be
joined to form a complete sentence. Choices (B) and (D) are incorrect because they do not contain
main verbs, and an independent clause must contain a main verb. (To form and forming are not
main verbs.) Only choice (C) could serve as an independent clause because it contains a subject
(Pumice) and a full verb; the passive verb is formed.
 LESSON 10: INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Sample Items (Continued)

Duke Ellington wrote during his
career. (A) that over a thousand songs
(B) over a thousand songs
(C) over a thousand songs were
(D) there were over a thousand songs
The correct answer is (B). The direct object is missing from this sentence. In choice (A), the
connecting word that is used unnecessarily. In choice (C), the verb were is used unnecessarily
because there is only one clause and it has a verb (wrote). In choice (D), the phrase there were is
not needed between a verb and its direct object.

Before the invention of the printing press,

books . (A) that were very rare
(B) were very rarely
(C) were very rare
(D) as very rare
The correct answer is (C). Choice (A) incorrectly forms an adjective clause; an adjective must
be joined to a main clause. Choice (B) contains an adverb; after the verb to be, an adjective is
required. Choice (D) lacks a verb. Choice (C) correctly supplies a verb (were).

CLAUSES WITH THERE AND IT

Some clauses begin with the introductory word there or it rather than with the subject of the
sentence. These introductory words are sometimes called expletives.
The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time or
place. These sentences generally follow the pattern there + verb to be + subject. For example:
There are many skyscrapers in New York City. There is a city
There was a good movie on television last night.
The expletive it is used in several different situations and patterns:
It is important to be punctual for appointments. (with the verb to be + adjective +
infinitive)
It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state. (with the verb t o b e + adverbial +
noun clause) It takes a long time to learn a language. (with the verb t o t a k e + time
phrase + infinitive) It was David who did most of the work. (with the verb t o b e +
noun + relative clause)
It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the stem.
 Sample Items
In Michigan, over 600 feet deep.
(A) salt deposits
(B) where salt deposits are
(C) having salt deposits
(D) there are salt deposits
The correct answer is (D). Choice (D) correctly supplies an introductory word (there), a verb,
and a subject. Choice (A) lacks a verb. Choice (B) contains a subordinator, used to introduce a
clause; there is only one verb, however, so there can only be one clause. Choice (C) also lacks a
main verb.
a tomato plant from seventy-five to eighty-five days to develop into a mature plant with
ripe fruit.
(A) It takes
(B) To take
(C) That takes
(D) By taking
The correct answer is (A). Choice (A) correctly completes the sentence with the introductory
word It and a verb. Choices (B) and (D) do not supply main verbs. Choice (C) incorrectly creates a
noun clause.

EXERCISE 10
Focus: Completing structure problems involving incomplete
independent clauses. (Note: Three or four items in this exercise
do NOT focus on missing subjects, verbs, complements, or
introductory words; these items are marked in the answer key
with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—that correctly completes the sentences.

1. In the United States, 3. the dollar as its

is generally the responsibility of monetary unit in
municipal governments. 1878.
(A) Canada adopted
(A) for water treatment (B) Adopted by Canada,
(B) water treatment (C) It was adopted by
(C) where water treatment (D) Canada
(D) in which water The Canadian adoption of
treatment 4. almost impossible to
2. Crop rotation of preserv- capture
the beauty of the a u ro r a b o realis
ing soil i n photographs.
fertility.
(A) it is one method (A) Being It
(B) one method (B) is There
(C) a method is one (C) is Is
(D) is one method (D) It is
 LESSON 10: INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

5. two major art museums, 11. who was elected the

the Fogg and the Sadler. first
woman mayor of Chicago in
1979.
(A) Harvard University has At (A) It was Jane
(B) Harvard University Harvard (B) Byrne
(C) University, with its There (C) Jane Byrne
(D) at Harvard University (D) That Jane Byrne
When Jane
6. American actress and director 12. EveryByrne
computer consists of a number
Margaret of systems together.
Webster
production of Shakespearean for her
plays. (A) by
(A) who became famous (B) working
(B) famous as she (C) work
(C) became becoming (D) they
(D) famous became work that
famous 13. On the moon,
work air because the
7. gas tanks connected to moon’s gravitational field is too weak
welding equipment, one full of oxygen to retain an atmosphere.
and the other full of acetylene.
(A) there is no
(A) It is two (B) where no
(B) Of the two (C) no
(C) There are (D) is no
(D) two Two
14. The Glass Mountains of northwestern
8. is more interested in Oklahoma with flecks
rhythm than in melody is apparent from of
gypsum, which shine in the
his compositions. sunlight.
(A) they are
(A) That Philip Glass (B) covered covered
(B) Philip Glass, who (C) them that are
(C) Philip Glass (D) covered are
(D) Because Philip covered
Glass 15. In some cases, to decide if
9. by an
organism is a plant or an
cosmic animal.
rays. (A) difficult if
(A) The earth is constantly (B) it is difficult
(B) bombarded Bombarded constantly, (C) the
(C) the earth Bombarding the earth (D) difficulty is
(D) constantly The earth’s constant difficult
bombardment 16. The first American novelist to have a
10. primary colors are red, major impact on world literature
blue,yellow.
and .
(A) There are three (A) who was James Fenimore
(B) The three (B) Cooper
(C) Three of them (C) James Fenimore Cooper was
(D) That the three (D) it was James Fenimore
Cooper was James Fenimore
Cooper