Natural Embank- Housing

Slope ment Site

Bridge
Fill Dam Tunnel Building Foundation
Foundation Reclama-
Underground tion
Excavation

Problems in Geotechnical Engineering

SOILS AND THEIR
CLASSIFICATION
Soils and their Classification
■ The behaviour of a structure depends upon the properties of the soil
materials on which the structure rests. The properties of the soil
materials depend upon the properties of the rocks from which they
are derived. A brief discussion of the parent rocks is, therefore, quite
essential in order
■ to understand the properties of soil materials.
UNIQUE NATURE OF SOIL
AND ROCK MATERIALS
■ Geotechnical engineering is highly empirical and is perhaps much
more of an “art” than the other disciplines within civil engineering
because of the basic nature of soil and rock materials
■ These materials are often highly variable, even within a distance of a
few millimetres.
■ Soils are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous materials. I.e.
Properties may vary widely from point to point within a soil mass
■ They are non linear materials; their stress-strain curves are not straight
lines
■ Soils are non-conservative materials i.e. they have a fantastic memory
as they remember almost everything that ever happened to them, and
this fact strongly affects engineering behaviour
■ Instead of being isotropic, soils are typically anisotropic, i.e. their
properties are not the same in all directions
 Soils - What are they?
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation of mineral
particles formed by the weathering of rocks, the void space between the
particles containing water and/or air.
Weak cementation can be due to carbonates or oxides precipitated between the particles
or due to organic matter.

■ Particulate materials
-Sedimentary origins (usually). If the products are transported and deposited in a different location
they constitute a transported soil, the agents of transportation being gravity, wind, water and glaciers

- Residual. If the products of weathering remain at their original location they constitute a residual
soil

■ Wide range of particle sizes

- larger particles: quartz, feldspar
- very small particles: clay minerals

■ Voids between particles

Aragonite-rich soil x 2000
Cemented calcareous sand
 Need for Simple Classification
■ Usually soil on site has to be used.
– Soils differ from other engineering materials in that one
has little control over their properties

■ Extent and properties of the soil have to be determined

■ Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication of

engineering properties, e.g. stiffness, strength, for
preliminary design

The classification must use core samples obtained from the ground.
This information is often supplemented by in-situ tests such as cone
penetration tests.
 SOIL PROFILE
■ Topsoil
A layer of organic soil, usually not more
than 500 mm thick, in which humus
(highly organic partly decomposed
vegetable matter) is often found.
■ Subsoil
The portion of the Earth’s crust affected by
current weathering, and lying between the
topsoil and the unweathered soil below.
■ Hardpan
In humid climates humic acid can be
formed by rainwater causing
decomposition of humus. This acid leaches
out iron and alumina oxides down into the
lower layers where they act as cementation
agents to form a hard, rock-like material.
Hardpan is difficult to excavate and, as it
does not soften when wet.
Introduction – Classification
Systems
Classification based on Particle Size
■ Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy
– e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals

■ Broad Classification

– Coarse grained soils

■ sands, gravels - visible to naked eye
Classification based on Particle Size
■ Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy
– e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals

■ Broad Classification

– Coarse grained soils

■ sands, gravels - visible to naked eye

– Fine grained soils

■ silts, clays, organic soils
Particle Size Ranges
An example of particle Sizes
 Procedure for grain size determination
■ Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

Sieves Mass (g)

Percent finer mass (%)

Plate
Total
Particle size (mm)

Sieve analysis
Procedure for grain size determination
■ Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

■ Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

– Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter
Procedure for grain size determination
■ Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

■ Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

– Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Procedure for grain size determination
■ Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

■ Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

– Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

 Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
 Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
 Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
 Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
 Grading curves
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
F Well graded with an excess of fines
 Simple Classification
■ In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

■ Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.
 Simple Classification
■ In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

■ Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.
0
1
00
1
0
9
0
2
0
8
0
3
0
7
0
4
0 C
la
y
6
0
5
0
5
0
6
0
S
and
yCla
y S
iltyC
la
y 4
0
7
0
3
0
8
0 C
la
y -S
and C
la
y -S
ilt
2
0
9
0
S
iltyS
and S
and
ySilt 1
0
1
00 S
and
0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5 0 60 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
00
SiltS
ize
s(%
)
L
OWE
R M
ISSIS
SIP
PIVAL
LEY DIV
ISIO
N,
U.S
.EN G
INE
ER DE
PT.
 Simple Classification
■ In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

■ Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with different proportions

of sand/silt/clay is required.

0
1
00
1
0
9
0
2
0
8
0
3
0
7
0
4
0 C
la
y
6
0
5
0
5
0
6
0
S
and
yCla
y S
iltyC
la
y 4
0
7
0
3
0
8
0 C
la
y -S
and C
la
y -S
ilt
2
0
9
0
S
iltyS
and S
and
ySilt 1
0
1
00 S
and
0
■ Note the importance of clay - Finest 20% control behaviour
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5 0 60 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
00
SiltS
ize
s(%
)
L
OWE
R M
ISSIS
SIP
PIVAL
LEY DIV
ISIO
N,
U.S
.EN G
INE
ER DE
PT.
 Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay
0
1
00
1
0
9
0
2
0
8
0
3
0
7
0
4
0 C
lay
6
0
5
0
5
0
6
0
S
andyC
lay S
iltyC
lay 4
0
7
0
3
0
8
0 C
lay-S
and C
lay-S
ilt
2
0
9
0
S
iltyS
and S
and
ySilt 1
0
1
00 S
and
0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5 0 60 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
00
SiltS
izes(%
)
L
OWE
RMIS
SIS
SIP
PIV
ALL
EYDIV
ISIO
N,
 Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay
0
1
00
1
0
9
0
2
0
8
0
3
0
7
0
4
0 C
lay
6
0
5
0
5
0
6
0
S
andyC
lay S
iltyC
lay 4
0
7
0
3
0
8
0 C
lay-S
and C
lay-S
ilt
2
0
9
0
S
iltyS
and S
and
ySilt 1
0
1
00 S
and
0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5 0 60 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
00
SiltS
izes(%
)
L
OWE
RMIS
SIS
SIP
PIV
ALL
EYDIV
ISIO
N,
 Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay
0
1
00
1
0
9
0
2
0
8
0
3
0
7
0
4
0 C
lay
6
0
5
0
5
0
6
0
S
andyC
lay S
iltyC
lay 4
0
7
0
3
0
8
0 C
lay-S
and C
lay-S
ilt
2
0
9
0
S
iltyS
and S
and
ySilt 1
0
1
00 S
and
0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5 0 60 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
00
SiltS
izes(%
)
L
OWE
RMIS
SIS
SIP
PIV
ALL
EYDIV
ISIO
N,
 Atterberg Limits
■ Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils
 Atterberg Limits
■ Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils

soil
40
Volume of
Volume Solid
(cookie)
Semi-solid
(cheese)
Plastic
(butter)
Liquid
(soup)

30
20
10
0
SL PL LL
0 20 Moisture
40 60
Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during drying

 Atterberg Limits
■ Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils

soil
40
Volume of
Volume Solid
(cookie)
Semi-solid
(cheese)
Plastic
(butter)
Liquid
(soup)

30
20
10
0
SL PL LL
0 20 Moisture
40 60
Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during drying

■ SL - Shrinkage Limit
■ PL - Plastic Limit
■ LL - Liquid limit
 Atterberg Limits
■ Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils

50
Vol. of Soil
40
30
20
10
0
SL PL LL
0 50 100
Moisture Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during

drying

■ SL - Shrinkage Limit
■ PL - Plastic Limit
■ LL - Liquid limit
 Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit
mass of water
Moisture content 
mass of solids
 Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit
mass of water
Moisture content 
mass of solids

Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip
 Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit
mass of water
Moisture content 
mass of solids

Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip

Liquidity Index = (m - PL)/Ip = LI

 Classification Systems
■ Used to determine the suitability of different soils

■ Used to develop correlations with useful soil properties

■ Special Purpose (Local) Systems

– e.g. PRA system of AAHSO
■ 1. Well graded sand or gravel: may include fines
■ 2. Sands and Gravels with excess fines
■ 3. Fine sands
■ 4. Low compressibility silts
■ 5. High compressibility silts
■ 6. Low to medium compressibility clays
■ 7. High compressibility clays
■ 8. Peat and organic soils
 Unified Soil Classification
■ Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.
 Unified Soil Classification
■ Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

 Unified Soil Classification
■ Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

■ Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

■ Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
 Unified Soil Classification
■ Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

■ Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

■ Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel

■ Suffix depends on %fines

 Unified Soil Classification
■ Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

■ Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

■ Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel

■ Suffix depends on %fines

■ if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P

■ if %fines > 12% suffix is either M or C
■ if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine if W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10 x% of the soil has particles
D302 smaller than Dx
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10 x% of the soil has particles
D302 smaller than Dx
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10 x% of the soil has particles
D302 smaller than Dx
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10 x% of the soil has particles
D302 smaller than Dx
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
D90 = 3
mm
 Unified Soil Classification
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10

D302
Cc 
( D60  D10 )

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P
 Unified Soil Classification
Coarse grained soils
To determine M or C use plasticity chart

60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40
Plasticity index

CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0
Below A-line use suffix M - 30
Silt 10 20 40 50 60
Liquid limit
70 80 90 100

Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Above A-line use suffix C - Clay
 Unified Soil Classification
– Fine grained soils (> 50% finer than 75 mm)
– Both letters determined from plasticity chart

60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40
Plasticity index

CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
 Unified soil classification (including identification and description)

Field identification procedures Group Information required for Laboratory classification

(Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on symbols Typical names
1 describing soils criteria
estimated weights)

Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm

Wide range of grain size and substantial GW Well graded gravels, gravel- D
Give typical names: indicate ap- C U = --- 60 Greater than 4

Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

Gravels with Clean gravels

Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve

(little or no

amounts of all intermediate particle sand mixtures, little or no proximate percentages of sand D 10
2
fines)

sizes fines and gravel: maximum size: (D30 )

More than half of coarse

C c = --------------------- Between 1 and 3

fraction is larger than

Predominantly one size or a range of GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel- angularity, surface condition, D10 x D60

sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows

sizes with some intermediate sizes sand mixtures, little or no and hardness of the coarse
More than half of material is larger than

missing fines grains: local or geological name Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
Gravels

2.36mm

and other pertinent descriptive

amount of fines)

Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Non-plastic fines (for identification GM Silty gravels, poorly information and symbol in
(apreciable

procedures see ML below) graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures parentheses. Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
fines

PI between 4 and 7
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye

"A" line or PI less than 4

Coarse grained soils
.075mm sieve size

Plastic fines (for identification pro- GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded For undisturbed soils add infor- are borderline cases
mation on stratification, degree Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
cedures see CL below) gravel-sand-clay mixtures

GM, GC, SM, SC

line with PI greater than 7 symbols

GW, GP, SW, SP

of compactness, cementation,
Wide range in grain sizes and sub- moisture conditions and drain- D
SW Well graded sands, gravelly
stantial amounts of all intermediate age characteristics. C U =--- 60 Greater than 6
Clean sands
(little or no

particle sizes sands, little or no fines D 10

fines)
More than half of coarse

(D 30 )2
fraction is smaller than

Predominantely one size or a range of
sizes with some intermediate sizes missing
2.36mm
Example:
SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly C c = --------------------- Between 1 and 3
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% D 10 x D60
sands, little or no fines hard angular gravel particles

12.5mm maximum size; rounded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Sands

More than 12%

amount of fines)

Non-plastic fines (for identification pro- SM Silty sands, poorly graded and subangular sand grains
(appreciable

Less than 5%
Sands with

cedures, see ML below) sand-silt mixtures coarse to fine, about 15% non- Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with

5% to 12%
plastic lines with low dry "A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7
fines

Plastic fines (for identification pro- SC Clayey sands, poorly graded strength; well compacted and are borderline cases
cedures, see CL below) sand-clay mixtures moist in places; alluvial sand; Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
(SM) line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm
sieve size
Dry strength Dilatency Toughness
crushing (consistency
More than half of material is smaller than

Silts and clays

(reaction
less than 50
liquid limit

character- to shaking) near plastic

istics limit)
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, Give typical name; indicate degree
None to Quick to rock flour, silty or clayey
slight slow None ML and character of plasticity, 60
Fine grained soils
.075mm sieve size

fine sands with slight plasticity

amount and maximum size of Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Medium to None to very Inorganic clays of low to medium coarse grains: colour in wet con- 50 Toughness and dry strength increase
high slow
Medium CL,CI plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy dition, odour if any, local or
clays, silty clays, lean clays with increasing plasticity index
geological name, and other pert-
Slight to Organic silts and organic silt- inent descriptive information, and 40

Plasticity index
medium Slow Slight OL clays of low plasticity CH
symbol in parentheses
30 CI
inorganic silts, micaceous or
Silts and clays

Slight to Slow to Slight to For undisturbed soils add infor-

MH dictomaceous fine sandy or
greater than
liquid limit

medium none medium silty soils, elastic silts mation on structure, stratif- 20 OH
ication, consistency and undis-
50

High to very Inorganic clays of high or

None High turbed and remoulded states, CL OL
high CH plasticity, fat clays moisture and drainage conditions 10
CL-ML or MH
ML
Medium to None to very Slight to Organic clays of medium to Example 0
high high medium OH high plasticity Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Readily identified by colour, odour small percentage of fine sand:
Highly organic soils spongy feel and frequently by fibrous Pt Peat and other highly organic soils numerous vertical root holes: firm Plasticity chart
and dry in places; loess; (ML) for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
texture
Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols

required
Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols

required
• D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm
Example
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

Particle size fractions: Gravel 17%

Sand 73%
Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
 Example
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40
Plasticity index

CH
30

20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M

Dual Symbols are SW-SM

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M

Dual Symbols are SW-SM

To complete the classification the Symbols should be accompanied
by a description