Chapter 04

Light Scattering

Violet and indigo are very small in size so blue is visible

The particle with

dimension similar to
the wavelength of the
light scatter light by
Intensity
Why the setting Sun looks red?
Direct from Top:
Light takes shorter path to
reach to us.

Less air molecules to scatter

the light, so all colored light
riches to us and sun looks
whitish.

From the Horizon:

Longer distance light has to
travel.

More air molecules it

encounter to scatter
shorter wavelength lights.

Only long wavelength lights

riches us
 4.1 The Phases of the Moon and Planets
The phases of moons or planets are the shapes of the sunlighted areas as seen
from a given point on earth.

• In fact, the name “month” comes from the word “moon.”

The actual period of the phases, the interval between a
particular phase of the Moon and its next repetition, is
approximately 29.53 Earth days.
• The Moon is not the only object in the Solar System that
goes through phases. Mercury and Venus both orbit inside
the Earth’s orbit.
• The Lunar year is 12 x 29.53 = 354.26 days

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz01pTvuMa0

Moon’s Orbit and Eclipse

 The Moon orbit
The Moon’s orbit is tilted by about 5º relative
to the Earth–Sun plane, making it difficult
for the Sun, Earth, and Moon to become
exactly aligned. However, when they do
reach the right configuration, eclipses occur
Sidereal Month versus Synodic Month
• The Moon's sidereal orbital period (the sidereal month) is ~27.32 days;
this is the time interval that the Moon takes to orbit 360° around the
Earth relative to the "fixed" stars.

• The period of the lunar phases (the synodic month), e.g. the full moon
to full moon period, is longer at ~29.53 days.
Sidereal Month versus Synodic Month

The Moon orbits Earth in a sidereal

period of 27.32 days.

The Moon’s synodic period (to

reach the same position relative
to the sun) is 29.53 days (~ 1
month).

Link of Sideral and Synodic Periods

Synodic period = 29.53 days
Sidereal period = 27.32 days
The Phases of the Moon
 The Phases of the Moon

From Earth, we
see different
portions of the
Moon’s surface
lit by the sun,
causing the
phases of the
Moon.
Lunar Phases
Because the phase of the Moon depends on its position in the
sky with respect to the Sun, a full moon always rises at sunset.
A crescent moon is either setting shortly after sunset, as shown
here, or rising shortly before sunrise.

These statements are true when viewing the Moon from

latitudes relatively near Earth’s equator.
Close to either pole, the relationship between lunar phase and
time of rising or setting is more complicated.
No moon Zero day rises with sun at 6:00 am Follows sun and we can not see
Waxing Crescent 𝟏
𝟖
after 4 days Rises around 9:00 am We can see it in the western sky after sunset
Half moon 𝟐 𝟏
or 𝟒 After a week Rises around noon We can see it in the middle of sky after sunset
𝟖
Waxing Gibbous 𝟑 After 11 days Rises around 3:00 PM We can see it in the Eastern sky after sunset
𝟖
Full moon 𝟒 or 𝟏 After 2 weeks Rises around 6:00 PM It rises in the Eastern sky after sunset
𝟖 𝟐
Waning Gibbous 𝟓 After 18 days Rises around 9:00 PM It sets in day time around 9:00 pm
𝟖
Waning Half 𝟔 𝟑 After 22 days Rises around midnight It sets in day time around noon
𝟖 or 𝟒
Waning Crescent 𝟕 after 26 days Rises around 3:00 am We can see it eastern sky in the early morning
𝟖
NO moon again 𝟖 or 1 after 30 days Rises with sun Stay with sun in daytime and we can not see it
𝟖

12: 00 Noon
6:
3:
6:00
00pm
am
pm
9: 00 am
NMD
CM
HM
GM
FM
 Because the Moon’s orbit around the
Earth and the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun are not precisely in the same plane
Eclipse the Moon usually passes slightly above
or below the Earth’s shadow at full
Eclipse reason moon, and the Earth usually passes
slightly above or below the Moon’s
shadow at new moon.
Moon around Earth Animation
But up to seven times a year, full moons
or new moons occur when the Moon is
Phase of the Moon animation
at the part of its orbit that crosses the
Earth’s orbital plane. At those times, we
Moon orbit have a lunar eclipse or a solar eclipse .

Thus up to seven eclipses (mostly

partial) can occur in a given year
 4.2 Celestial Spectacles: Eclipses
• Because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth and the Earth’s orbit around the
Sun are not precisely in the same plane, the Moon usually passes slightly
above or below the Earth’s shadow at full moon, and the Earth usually
passes slightly above or below the Moon’s shadow at new moon.
• But up to seven times a year, full moons or new moons occur when the
Moon is at the part of its orbit that crosses the Earth’s orbital plane. At
those times, we have a lunar eclipse or a solar eclipse.
4.2 Celestial Spectacles: Eclipses
Lunar Eclipses do not occur frequently
Lunar Eclipses
Earth’s shadow
consists of a zone of
partial shadow, the
Penumbra, and a zone
of full shadow, the
Umbra.

If the Moon (Full Moon) passes through Earth’s full shadow (Umbra), we
see a lunar eclipse.
If the entire surface of the moon enters the Umbra, the lunar eclipse is total.
4.2a Eerie Lunar Eclipses
A total lunar eclipse can last up to 1 hour and 40 min.
During a total eclipse, the moon has a faint, red glow, reflecting
sun light scattered in Earth’s atmosphere.
Lunar Eclipses
A Total Lunar Eclipse
Solar Eclipses
Total Solar Eclipse

Chromosphere and Corona

Prominences
 Diamond Ring Effect
The diamond-ring effect, marks the beginning and the end of the total phase of a solar eclipse. Here,
sunlight shining through valleys or between mountains on the edge of the Moon led to the effect
looking like a double diamond ring.
Solar Eclipse Link
Real Solar Eclipse 2017 USA Video Link
 4.2b Glorious Solar Eclipses

When the Moon (new Moon) passes in front of the sun, the moon
can cover the sun completely, causing a total solar eclipse.
How come the Moon and Sun look the same size
The Moon is about 400 times smaller in diameter than the solar photosphere (the disk of the
Sun we see every day, also known as the Sun’s “surface”), it is also about 400 times closer to
the Earth. Because of this coincidence, the Sun and the Moon cover almost exactly the same
angle in the sky—about 0.5º
 Totally Eclipsed Sun
The total solar eclipse of April 8, 2005, viewed from a ship in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, since
totality was not visible from land. The totally eclipsed Sun is safe to view with the naked eye,
binoculars, or a telescope; here we see the corona. Some prominences (red), a thin layer known as the
chromosphere (also red), and the inner corona c during totality
 Totally Eclipsed Sun:
Total eclipses of the Sun from 2001 to 2025. On
April 8, 2005, totality was visible only in the
middle of a band whose ends showed just an
annular eclipse, so that path is marked (in blue) in
the next figure (Fig. 4–14) rather than here. The
two hybrid (annular/total) eclipses of 2013 are
also shown only in Figure 4–14

The moons
shadow moves
on earth like a
shadow of an
airplane
 Annular Eclipse

Sometimes the Moon covers a slightly

smaller angle in the sky than the Sun,
because the Moon is in the part of its
elliptical orbit that is relatively far from the
Earth. When a well-aligned eclipse occurs
in such a circumstance, the Moon doesn’t
quite cover the Sun. An annulus—a ring—
of the photosphere remains visible, so we
call this special type of partial eclipse an
annular eclipse.

Somewhere in the world, a total solar

eclipse occurs about every 18 months

Annular eclipses of the Sun from 2001 to 2025. The inset shows an image of the annular eclipse of May
10, 1994, photographed from New Hampshire. The parts of the very narrow paths of three annular/total
“hybrid” eclipses (one in 2005, two in 2013) from which totality is seen are shown in blue
 Seasons

How do we get seasons

How Earth Moves

Subsolar point
 4.7 The Reason for the Seasons
Earth has seasons because its axis is tilted. Earth rotates on its axis as it
orbits the Sun, but the axis always points in the same direction which
means different areas of Earth point toward or away from the Sun at
different times of the year.
 Lahaina, Hawaii, USA Noon
Subsolar point in Northern Summer

Subsolar point in southern Summer

Sun’s position Summer and winter Equinox
taken from Cecily Italy (link)
Summer Solstice, Equinox and Winter Solstice

Summer Solstice
-Sun’s path above North
-Longest day in North
-Shortest shadow

Equinox
-Sun’s path just above equator
-12 hours day

Winter Solstice
-Sun’s path above south
-Shortest day in North
-longest shadow
 Solar Analemma (link)

At any time of day, you could theoretically set up a camera to take a picture of the landscape that encompasses the apparent position of the
Sun in the sky. If you came back the next day at the exact same time, 24 hours later, you'd find that the Sun had changed its position ever-so-
slightly. If you did this every day for a full year, you'd discover two important things:
1.The Sun would have returned to its starting point at long last, as the Earth returned to the same point in its orbit from a year prior.
2.The shape you traced out would look like a figure-8 with one loop larger than the other: a shape known as our analemma.
Aphelion = Farthest Point
Perihelion = closest point
Equinox = passing through equator
Summer Solstice = Sun reaches just above 23.440 (Northern Hemisphere) form equator during summer in North
Winter Solstice = Sun reaches just above 23.440 (Southern Hemisphere) form equator during winter in North
Solstice
Two reasons why summer is warmer than winter:

1) Sun is above the horizon longer during the summer

2) Sun rises higher in sky during the summer.

Animation of Seasons Link
 4.3 Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star . . .
The stars at night seems to change in brightness over short time—that is, to
twinkle. This twinkling comes from the moving regions of air in the Earth’s
atmosphere. The air bends starlight, just as a glass lens bends light.

Moving air creates lens

effect and bends light.

Due to movement the light

bends differently and the
start seems twinkling.

Planets are close to us and

their average light reaches
to us same all the time.
Except in heavy air
movement, they don’t
twinkle.
4.3 Apparent Magnitude of Stars
Hipparchus classified stars into 6 categories

Brightest star = Magnitude 1

Faintest Star visible to eye = Magnitude 6

Mag 1 = 100 x brighter than Mag. 6

The magnitude difference between mag. 6 and

mag. 1 star is 5

This means we need a number that need to be

multiplied by itself 5 times will give us 100. The
number is 2.512.

2.512 x 2.512 x 2.512 x 2.512 x 2.512 = 100

(2.512)5 = 100
4.3 Apparent Magnitude of Stars
If star A has magnitude mA and star B has magnitude
mB and A is brighter than B

( 𝑚𝐵 −𝑚 𝐴)
𝑏 𝐴=2.512 𝑏𝐵

b = brightness

Examples: If Star B is 1 magnitude fainter than Star A

(say 3rd magnitude instead of 2nd magnitude), mB = 3
and mA = 2

bA/bB = (2.512)1 = 2.512

bA = 2.512bB,

Star A approximately 2.512 times brighter than

Star B.
4.3 Apparent Magnitude of Stars
Later with the advancement of instrument the
brightness is extended further. Smaller the number
bigger the apparent brightness. The brightness differs
by 2.512 or rounded out to 2.5.
 4.5 Rising and setting Stars
Stars and planets are so distant that they all seem to be glued to an
enormously large imaginary sphere surrounding the Earth, the celestial
sphere.
If you extend the Earth’s axis beyond the north pole and the south
pole, these extensions point to the celestial poles.

A star named Polaris happens to be near the

north celestial pole, only about 1º away, so
we call Polaris the pole star or the “North
Star.”

Since the Earth rotates on its axis. Only the positions of the north and
south celestial poles are steady, and there is no bright “South Star.”
Polaris is used to find the north direction.
 How to Find North At Night By The Star Polaris
1. Locate the Big Dipper.
2. Locate the two stars at the front edge of the cup.
3. An imaginary line between these two stars, extended out about 5 times
from the Big Dipper’s cup will point towards the North Star (Polaris).

Note: The position of the Big Dipper

around the North Star depends on the
time of night and the month of the
year. The following image illustrates
this…
 Right above you is Zenith

Zenith and horizon are always 90o

From north pole you will see
Polaris not moving and other
stars rounds the Polaris.
 Lunar Calendar

It is based on lunar synodic period of 29.53 days. So, some months are 29 and some moths are 30 days
Not accurate with seasons
Early Solar Year

Earth revolving around zodiac signs

 Solar Calendar

Egyptian solar calendar

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpUhO8LXG9Y

Solar calendar based on constellations are not accurate and differ from place to place
Luni-Solar Calendar
Luni-solar calendar takes account of
both the phases of moon as well as the
seasons.
Julian Calendar (First Solar accurate solar
calendar)

45 BC Proposed by Julius Ceasar

August and July named after

To correct the calender he made

46 BC as 445 days.

The earth completes 365 days, 5

hours, 59 minutes and 12 seconds

He considered 365 days 6 hours in

his new calendar and used Feb
29th in every 4 year called a leap
year.

Julian calendar is the most

accurate calandar of the time.
 Gregorian calendar (1582)
The earth completes 365 days, 5 hours, 59
minutes and 12 seconds (365.2425)

But 1 min and 12 seconds (not 365.25 days)

inaccuracy accumulated in hundreds of
years and the upset in seasons has been
noticeable. 10 days offset by 1582.

Date of Ester (21-March, spring equinox)

starts to differ noticeably.

1 leap year in 4 years means there should

be 100 leap days in 400 years.

But the rounding makes extra 3 days. So

there must be 97 leap days instead in 400
years

Need to reduce 3 leap years out of 400 years, so he made a rule. No leap year while there is a year divisible by 100
except at the year divisible by 400.

For example: No leap year during 1700 AD, 1800 AD and 1900 AD but There will be leap year in 2000 AD.
Gregorian is the most accurate calendar so far. But still we might need correction after long time.

America and British empire adopted it in 1752 and skipped 11 days.

Due to correction, George Washington, the founding father of USA has two birth dates. Feb 11, 1731 and
Feb 22, 1731.
Russia adoped in 1918 and Saudi Arabia in 2016
4.8 Time and the International Date Line

Greenland -3
 4.8 Time and the International Date Line

Greenwich UK

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the mean

solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
London, reckoned from midnight. At different times in
the past, it has been calculated in different ways,
including being calculated from noon;[1] as a
consequence, it cannot be used to specify a precise
time unless a context is given.
 Time Accuracy

By measuring the oscillation of atoms, atomic clocks remain precise, but

they're not perfect. They experience an error of 1 second every one-hundred
million years or so.
 Knew Science But Misinterpret
Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as
the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western
astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-
bodied demon beheaded by the Sudarshan Chakra of Vishnu after attempting to swallow the
sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as
"shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. They have an orbital cycle of
18 years and are always 180 degrees from each other.

The nakshatras or lunar mansions are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu
astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s). [29]:168
Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern
astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13° 20′ of the ecliptic.
The missing 28th nakshatra is Abhijeeta. Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters
or padas of 3° 20′. Of greatest importance is the Abhiśeka Nakṣatra, which is held as king over
the other nakṣatras. Worshipping and gaining favour over this nakṣatra is said to give power to
remedy all the other nakṣatras, and is of concern in predictive astrology and mitigating Karma.
 Smart Egyptians
The first time each year in which Sirius appears is called the
heliacal rising of Sirius. In Egypt this would be in the month of
Thoth. It would occur close to the Summer solstice and the time
of the Nile's inundation. The helical rising marked the
beginning of the New Year which was held to be controlled by
Isis.
Sirius was revered as the Nile Star, or Star of Isis, by the ancient
Egyptians. Its annual appearance just before dawn at the Summer
Solstice, June 21, heralded the coming rise of the Nile, upon
which Egyptian agriculture depended. This helical rising is
referred to in many temple inscriptions, where the star is known
as the Divine Sepat, identified as the soul of Isis. In the temple of
Hathor at Dedendra, Egypt, appears the inscription, "Her majesty
Isis shines into the temple on New Year's Day, and she mingles
her light with that of her father on the horizon." For 35 days
before, and 35 days after the Sun conjuncts it on July 4, the star
Sirius is hidden by the Sun's glare. The ancient Egyptians refused
to bury their dead during the 70 days Sirius was hidden from
view, because it was believed Sirius was the doorway to the
afterlife, and the doorway was thought to be closed during this
yearly period.
The Chinese knew this place as the bridge between heaven
and hell, the bridge of the gatherer, the judge. In the higher
mind are gathered the results of the experiences of the
personality. Between each life the soul judges its past
progress, and the conditions needed to aid its future growth.
As long as it is attached to desire, sensation, and needs
experiences, it takes a body. The soul cannot pass over the
"bridge" until it is perfected.
 Cultural inflow and modification

子 Rat Rat also corresponds to a particular month in the year.

The hours of the Rat are 11pm – 1am.
丑 Ox Ox also corresponds to a particular month in the year.
The hours of the Ox are 1am – 3am.
寅 Tiger Tiger also corresponds to a particular month in the year.
The hours of the Tiger are 3am – 5am.