Biological Psychology

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 4
Genetics, Evolution, Development
and Plasticity
 4.1 Genetics and Evolution of Behavior

• Does human behavior depend on genetics,

environmental influences, or both?
• A review of genetics provides a springboard for
evaluating this controversial question
 Genetics and Behavior
• Both genes and environment interact to shape
human behavior
• The fundamental issue is how much a role each
factor plays in shaping human behaviors
– Example: facial expressions
– Other examples: psychological disorders, weight
gain, personality, and sexual orientation
Genetic Contribution to
Facial Expression
 Mendelian Genetics

• 19th century monk Gregor Mendel demonstrated

that inheritance occurs through discrete units of
heredity, called genes
– Prior to Mendel, it was commonly believed that
inheritance was a blending process of the properties
of the egg and sperm (like paint)
• Genes come in pairs, called alleles, and are
aligned along chromosomes
 Mendelian Genetics – DNA and RNA

• A gene is defined as a portion of a chromosome

and is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• DNA serves as a model for the synthesis of
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• RNA is a single strand chemical that can serve as a
template/model for the synthesis of proteins
(messenger RNA)
 Mendelian Genetics –Proteins

• Proteins determine the development of the body

by:
– Forming part of the structure of the body
– Serving as enzymes, biological catalysts that
regulate chemical reactions in the body
How DNA Controls the Development
of an Organism
Mendelian Genetics – Heterozygous and
Homozygous Genes
• Being homozygous for a gene means that a
person has an identical pair of genes on the two
chromosomes
• Being heterozygous for a gene means that a
person has an unmatched pair of genes on the two
chromosomes
 Mendelian Genetics – Dominant and
Recessive Genes
• Genes are either dominant, recessive, or intermediate
– Examples: eye color, ability to taste PTC
• A dominant gene shows a strong effect in either the
homozygous or heterozygous condition
• A recessive gene shows its effect only in the
homozygous condition
• An intermediate gene occurs in a phenotype where
there is incomplete dominance in the heterozygous
condition
Four Equally Likely Outcomes of a Mating
Between Heterozygous Tasters
 Mendelian Genetics

• – Gene Expression?
 Types of Genes

• Autosomal genes: all other genes except for sex-

linked genes
• Sex-linked genes: genes located on the sex
chromosomes
• In mammals, the sex chromosomes are designated
X&Y
– Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
– Males have an X and a Y chromosome (XY)
 Mendelian Genetics – X and Y

• During reproduction:
– Females contribute an X chromosome
– Males contribute either an X or a Y chromosome that
determines the sex of the child
• If an X chromosome is contributed by the male, the
offspring is genetically female
• If a Y chromosome is contributed by the male, the
offspring will be genetically male
Mendelian Genetics – Sex-Linked and
Sex-Limited Genes
• The human Y chromosome has genes for far fewer
proteins than the X chromosome
• Thus, sex-linked genes usually refer to X-linked
genes: e.g., red-green color deficiency
• Sex-limited genes are genes that are present in
both sexes but mainly have an effect on one sex
(chest hair, breast size, aggression, etc.)
 Genetic Changes

• Genes change in several ways

– Mutation: a heritable change in a DNA molecule
– Microduplication/microdeletion: part of a
chromosome that might appear once might appear
twice or not at all
– Example: some researchers believe schizophrenia
might be a result of microduplications and
microdeletions of brain-relevant genes
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aAhcNjmvhc

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 Epigenetics

• A field that is concerned with changes in gene

expression without the modification of the DNA
sequence
– Some genes are active only at a certain point in
one’s life, a certain time of day, etc.
– Changes in gene expression are central to learning
and memory
– Epigenetic differences are a likely explanation for
differences between monozygotic “identical” twins
Activation of Certain Genes
 Epigenetic Effects

• What you do at any moment not only affects you

now, but produces epigenetic effects that alter gene
expressions for a longer period of time
• Experiences alter the activity of genes
 Heritability

• Refers to how much characteristics depend on

genetic differences
– Researchers have found evidence for heritability in
almost every behavior they have tested
– Heritability of a certain trait is specific to a given
population
– Strong environmental influences may cause genetic
influences to have less of an effect
 Heredity and Environment

• Almost all behaviors have both a genetic and an

environmental component
• Researchers:
– Study monozygotic and dizygotic twins to infer
contributions of heredity and environment
– Study adopted children and their resemblance to
their biological parents to infer hereditary influences
– Identify specific genes linked to some behavior
 Environmental Modification

• Traits with a strong hereditary influence can by

modified by environmental intervention
– e.g., PKU: a genetic inability to metabolize the amino
acid phenylketonuria
– Environmental interventions can modify PKU
 How Genes Affect Behavior

• Genes do not directly produce behaviors

• Genes produce proteins that increase the
probability that a behavior will develop under
certain circumstances
• Genes can also have an indirect affect
– Genes can alter your environment by producing
behaviors or traits that alter how people in your
environment react to you
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k50yMwEOWG
U

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 The Evolution of Behavior

• Evolution refers to a change in the frequency of

various genes in a population over generations
– Regardless of whether the change is helpful or
harmful to the species
• Evolution attempts to answer two questions:
– How did some species evolve?
– How do species evolve?
 How Do Species Evolve?

• How species evolve rests upon some assumptions:

– Offspring generally resemble their parents for
genetic reasons
– Mutations, recombination, and microduplications of
genes introduce new heritable variations
– Certain individuals successfully reproduce more than
others
 Artificial Selection

• Refers to choosing individuals with desired traits

and making them parents of the next generation
• According to Darwin, nature also selects, and
successful individuals’ genes will be prevalent in
later generations
Common Misconceptions about Evolution

• Lamarckian evolution: “The use or disuse of some

structure or behavior causes an increase or
decrease in that behavior”
• “Humans have stopped evolving”
• “Evolution means improvement”
• “Evolution acts to benefit the individual or the
species”
 Evolutionary Psychology

• Focuses upon functional and evolutionary

explanations of how behaviors evolved
– Assumes that behaviors characteristic of a species
have arisen through natural selection and provide a
survival advantage
 Examples: differences in peripheral/color vision, sleep
mechanisms in the brain, eating habits, temperature
regulation
 Behavior and Natural Selection

• Some behaviors are more debatable with regard to

the influence of natural selection
• Examples
– Life span length
– Gender differences in sexual promiscuity
– Altruistic behavior: a behavior that benefits someone
other than the actor
 Group and Kin Selection

• A gene:
– Only spreads if individuals with it reproduce more
than individuals without it
– That benefits the species but not the individual dies
out with that individual
• 1.Group selection: controversial hypothesis that
states that altruistic groups survive better than less
cooperative ones
• 2.Kin selection: more plausible; selection for a gene
benefits the individual’s relatives
 3.Reciprocal Altruism

• The idea that individuals help those that will return

the favor
• Building a reputation for helpfulness only works if
others are willing to cooperate with you

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyiUuuQ9dXE
 4.2 Development of the Brain

• Brain development depends upon:

– Maturation
– Learning
• We can refine this understanding by learning how:
– Neurons develop
– Their axons connect
– Experience modifies development.
 Maturation of the Vertebrate Brain

• The human central nervous system begins to form

when the embryo is approximately two weeks old
– The dorsal surface thickens, forming a neural tube
surrounding a fluid filled cavity
– The forward end enlarges and differentiates into the
hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
– The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord
Early Development of the Human
Central Nervous System
Human Brain at Four Stages
of Development
 Cerebrospinal Fluid

• The fluid-filled cavity becomes the central canal of

the spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain
– This fluid is the cerebrospinal fluid
 Brain Weight

• At birth, the human brain weighs approximately 350

grams
• By the first year, the brain weighs approximately
1000 grams
• The adult brain weighs 1200-1400 grams
 The Development of Neurons

• The development of neurons in the brain involves

the following processes:
1. Proliferation
2. Migration
3. Differentiation
4. Myelination
5. Synaptogenesis
 1. Proliferation

• The production of new cells/ neurons in the brain

primarily occurring early in life
– Early in development, the cells lining the ventricles
divide
– Some cells become stem cells that continue to
divide
– Others remain where they are or become neurons or
glia that migrate to other locations
 2. Migration

• The movement of the newly formed neurons and

glia to their eventual locations
– Some do not reach their destinations until adulthood
• Occurs in a variety of directions throughout the
brain
– Chemicals known as immunoglobulins and
chemokines guide neuron migration
 3. Differentiation

• The forming of the axon and dendrites that gives

the neuron its distinctive shape
• The axon grows first either during migration or once
it has reached its target and is followed by the
development of the dendrites
 4. Myelination

• The process by which glia produce the fatty sheath

that covers the axons of some neurons
– Myelin speeds up the transmission of neural
impulses
– First occurs in the spinal cord and then in the
hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain
– Occurs gradually for decades
 5. Synaptogenesis

• The final stage of neural development – the

formation of the synapses between neurons
– Occurs throughout the life as neurons are constantly
forming new connections and discarding old ones
– Slows significantly later in the lifetime
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jsop_hsBSC4

© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

 New Neurons Later in Life (1 of 2)

• Originally believed that no new neurons were

formed after early development
• Later research suggests otherwise
– Stem cells: undifferentiated cells found in the interior
of the brain that generate “daughter cells” that can
transform into glia or neurons
– New olfactory receptors also continually replace
dying ones
 The Life Span of Neurons

• Different cells have different average life spans

• Skin cells are the newest; most are under a year
old
• Heart cells, on the other hand, tend to be as old as
the person
• Mammalian cerebral cortexes form few or no new
neurons after birth
 Pathfinding by Axons

• Axons must travel great distances across the brain

to form the correct connections
• Sperry’s (1954) research with newts indicated that
axons follow a chemical trail to reach their
appropriate target
• Growing axons reach their target area by following
a gradient of chemicals in which they are attracted
by some chemicals and repelled by others
 Competition Among Axons as a
General Principle
• When axons initially reach their targets, they form
synapses with several cells
• Postsynaptic cells strengthen connection with some
cells and eliminate connections with others
• The formation or elimination of these connections
depends on the pattern of input from incoming
axons
 Neural Darwinism

• Some theorists refer to the idea of the selection

process of neural connections as neural
Darwinism
• In this competition among synaptic connections, we
initially form more connections than we need
• The most successful axon connections and
combinations survive while the others fail to sustain
active synapses
 Determinants of Neuronal Survival

• Levi-Montalcini discovered that muscles do not

determine how many axons form; they determine
how many survive
• Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a type of protein
released by muscles that promotes the survival and
growth of axons
– The brain’s system of overproducing neurons and
then applying apoptosis enables the exact matching
of the number of incoming axons to the number of
receiving cells
 Neurotropins

• Chemicals that promote the survival and activity of

neurons (i.e., NGF)
– Axons that are not exposed to neurotropins after
making connections undergo apoptosis – a
preprogrammed mechanism of cell death
– Therefore, the healthy adult nervous system
contains no neurons that failed to make appropriate
connections
 Neuronal Death

• The elimination of massive cell death is part of

normal development and maturation
• After maturity, the apoptotic mechanisms become
dormant

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmEOJyWVQj4
 The Vulnerable Developing Brain

• Early stages of brain development are critical for

normal development later in life
• A mutation on one gene can lead to many defects
• Chemical distortions in the brain during early
development can cause significant impairment and
developmental problems
 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (1 of 2)

• A condition that children are born with if the mother

drinks heavily during pregnancy
• Marked by the following:
– Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
– Difficulty maintaining attention
– Varying degrees of mental retardation
– Motor problems and heart defects
– Facial abnormalities
 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (2 of 2)

• The dendrites of children born with fetal alcohol

syndrome are short with few branches
• Exposure to alcohol in the fetus brain suppresses
glutamate and enhances the release of GABA
• Many neurons consequently receive less excitation
and exposure to neurotrophins than usual and
undergo apoptosis
 Fine-Tuning by Experience

• The brain has some ability to reorganize itself in

response to experience
– Axons and dendrites continue to modify their
structure and connections throughout the lifetime
– Dendrites continually grow new spines
• The gain and loss of spines indicates new
connections, which relates to learning
Changes in Dendritic Trees of
Two Mouse Neurons
Effect of a Stimulating Environment
Experience and Dendritic Branching (1 of
2)
• Rats raised in an enriched environment develop a
thicker cortex, increased dendritic branching and
improved learning
• Measurable expansion of neurons has also been
shown in humans as a function of physical activity
• As old neurons die by apoptosis and new ones
form to take their place, there is improved learning
and memory
Experience and Dendritic Branching (2 of
2)
• It was once believed that teaching a child a difficult
concept (e.g., Greek, advanced math, etc.) would
enhance intelligence in other areas
– This concept is known as “far transfer”
• Evidence shows that skills associated with the
practiced task transfer, but not other skills
– The brain cannot be “exercised” like a muscle
 Effects of Special Experiences

• Blind people improve their attention to touch and

sound, based on practice
– Touch information activated this occipital cortex
area, which is ordinarily devoted to vision alone
• The occipital lobe normally dedicated to processing
visual information adapts to also process tactile
and verbal information
 Brain Adaptations

• People blind from birth are better at discriminating

between objects by touch and have increased
activation in their occipital cortex (visual cortex)
while performing touch tasks
• Further research using magnetic stimulation to
inactivate brain areas demonstrated that blind
people use the occipital cortex to discriminate
between tactile stimuli and Braille symbols but
sighted people do not.
 Music Training

• MRI studies reveal the following:

– The temporal lobe of professional musicians in the
right hemisphere is 30% larger than non-musicians
– Thicker gray matter in the part of the brain
responsible for hand control and vision of
professional keyboard players
– Results suggest that practicing a skill reorganizes
the brain to maximize performance of that skill
Brain Correlates of Music Practice
When Brain Reorganization Goes Too Far
(1 of 3)
• Focal hand dystonia or “musicians cramp” refers
to a condition where the reorganization of the brain
goes too far
– The fingers of musicians who practice extensively
become clumsy, fatigue easily, and make involuntary
movements
– This condition is a result of extensive reorganization
of the sensory thalamus and cortex so that touch
responses to one finger overlap those of another
When Brain Reorganization Goes Too Far
(2 of 3)
When Brain Reorganization Goes Too Far
(3 of 3)
With extensive musical practice, the expanding representations
of the fingers might spread out like this:
 Brain Development and
Behavioral Development
• Adolescents tend to be more impulsive than adults
– Impulsivity can be a problem when it leads to
drinking, risky driving, sex, etc.
 Brain Development and Adolescents

• Adolescents are not equally impulsive in all

situations
– Peers, amount of time to make decisions, etc., affect
their decisions
• The prefrontal cortex of adolescents is relatively
inactive in certain situations, but this may or may
not be the cause of impulsivity
 Brain Development and Old Age

• Some neurons lose their synapses, and the

remaining synapses change more slowly than
before in response to experiences
• Brain structures begin to lose volume
• Research underestimates older people:
– People vary in respect to intellectual decline
– Older people have a greater base of knowledge and
experience, and many find ways to compensate for
losses
 4.3 Plasticity after Brain Damage

• Almost all survivors of brain damage show

behavioral recovery to some degree
• Some recovery relies on the growth of new
branches of axons and dendrites
• Understanding the processes of recovery will give
us new and improved therapies
Plasticity After Brain Damage – Recovery

• Most survivors of brain damage show some degree

of behavioral recovery
• Some of the mechanisms of recovery include those
similar to the mechanisms of brain development
such as the new branching of axons and dendrites
Brain Damage and Short-Term Recovery
(1 of 2)
• Possible causes of brain damage
– Tumors
– Infections
– Exposure to toxic substances or radiation
– Degenerative diseases
– Closed head injuries
Brain Damage and Short-Term Recovery
(2 of 2)
• A closed head injury refers to a sharp blow to the
head that does not puncture the brain
– One of the main causes of brain injury in young
adults
– After a severe injury, recovery can be slow and
incomplete
• A stroke or cerebrovascular accident is temporary
loss of blood flow to the brain
– Common cause of brain damage in elderly
Three Examples of Damaged
Human Brains
 Types of Strokes

• Ischemia: the most common type of stroke,

resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of an
artery
– Neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply
• Hemorrhage: a less frequent type of stroke
resulting from a ruptured artery
– Neurons are flooded with excess blood, calcium,
oxygen, and other chemicals
 Effects of Strokes (1 of 2)

• Ischemia and hemorrhage also cause:

– Edema: the accumulation of fluid in the brain
resulting in increased pressure on the brain and
increasing the probability of further strokes
– Disruption of the sodium-potassium pump leading to
the accumulation of potassium ions inside neurons
 Effects of Strokes (2 of 2)

• Edema and excess potassium triggers the release

of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate
• The overstimulation of neurons leads to sodium
and other ions entering the neuron in excessive
amounts
• Excess positive ions in the neuron block
metabolism in the mitochondria and kill the neuron
Immediate Treatments for Stroke (1 of 3)

• A drug called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)

breaks up blood clots and can reduce the effects of
an ischemic strokes
• Research has begun to attempt to save neurons
from death by blocking:
– Glutamate synapses
– Calcium entry
Immediate Treatments for Stroke (2 of 3)

• One of the most effective laboratory methods used

to minimize damage caused by strokes is to cool
the brain
• Cooling protects the brain after ischemia by
reducing overstimulation, apoptosis, and
inflammation
Immediate Treatments for Stroke (3 of 3)

• Cannabanoids have also been shown to potentially

minimize cell loss after a brain stroke
• Benefits are most likely due to cannabinoids anti-
inflammatory effects
– Research shows that they are most effective in
laboratory animals when taken before the stroke
 Later Mechanisms of Recovery from
Brain Damage
• Following brain damage, surviving brain areas
increase or reorganize their activity
– Diaschisis: decreased activity of surviving neurons
after damage to other neurons
 Because activity in one area stimulates other areas,
damage to the brain disrupts patterns of normal
stimulation
• Drugs (stimulants) may stimulate activity in healthy
regions of the brain after a stroke
 Later Mechanisms of Recovery

• Destroyed cell bodies cannot be replaced, but

damaged axons do grow back under certain
circumstances
– If an axon in the peripheral nervous system is
crushed, it follows its myelin sheath back to the
target and grows back toward the periphery at a rate
of about 1 mm per day
 Regrowth of Axons

• Damaged axons do not readily regenerate in a

mature mammalian brain or spinal cord
– Scar tissue makes a mechanical barrier to axon
growth
– Neurons on the two sides of the cut pull apart
– Glia cells that react to CNS damage release
chemicals that inhibit axon growth
• Research on building protein bridges may help
 Axon Sprouting

• Collateral sprouts are new branches formed by

other non-damaged axons that attach to vacant
receptors
• Cells that have lost their source of innervation
release neurotrophins that induce axons to form
collateral sprouts
• Over several months, the sprouts fill in most
vacated synapses and can be useful, neutral, or
harmful
Collateral Sprouting
 Denervation Supersensitivity

• Postsynaptic cells deprived of synaptic inputs

develop increased sensitivity to the
neurotransmitter to compensate for decreased
input
• Denervation supersensitivity: the heightened
sensitivity to a neurotransmitter after the
destruction of an incoming axon
– Can cause consequences such as chronic pain
Reorganized Sensory Representations and
the Phantom Limb (1 of 2)
• Phantom limb: the continuation of sensation of an
amputated body part
– The cortex reorganizes itself after the amputation of
a body part by becoming responsive to other parts of
the body
– Original axons degenerate leaving vacant synapses
into which others axons sprout
Reorganized Sensory Representations and
the Phantom Limb (2 of 2)
• The phantom limb can lead to the feeling of
sensations in the amputated part of the body when
other parts of the body are stimulated
– e.g., a touch on the face can bring about the
experience of a phantom arm
– Use of an artificial limb can reduce the likelihood of
experiencing phantom limb
Somatosensory Cortex of a Monkey
After a Finger Amputation
Sources of Phantom Sensation
 Learned Adjustments in Behavior

• Deafferentated limb: limbs that have lost their

afferent sensory input
– Can still be used but are often not because use of
other mechanisms to carry out the behavior are
easier
– Has led to the development of therapy techniques to
improve functioning of brain damaged people
 Focuses on what they are capable of doing
Cross-Section Through the
Spinal Cord