Major Data collection methods • Quantitative – Questionnaire – Interview – Observation • Qualitative – Focus group discussion – Interview • In-depth interview • Key informant interview – Observation Quantitative Data Collection Techniques QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of
a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents Question types: open-ended and closed-ended questions. • An open-ended question: asks the respondent to formulate his /her own answer. E.g. Why did you decide to stop taking hormone replacement drugs? • A closed-ended question: has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. E.g., Have you ever taken hormone replacement drugs? (yes/no) • The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. • Types of Closed-Ended Questions – Dichotomous questions (yes/no) – Multiple-choice questions – Rank-order questions – Rating questions Question sequence: Questions should flow – logically from one to the next. – from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, – from factual to attitudinal, – from more general to more specific. Question construction: • Develop an outline of the instrument’s content • Questions can be borrowed/adopted from other instruments • Carefully monitor the wording of each question – for clarity, sensitivity to the respondents psychological state, freedom from bias and reading level • Sequence questions in a psychologically meaningful order that encourages cooperation and openness • Review of draft instruments by peers and then pretest with a small sample of respondents Scales can be formatted in a number of ways: • Dichotomous: respondent has two options • Nominal-polytomous: respondent has more than two unordered options • Ordinal-polytomous: respondent has more than two ordered options • Continuous: respondent is presented with a continuous scale • Advantages: – Questions are presented in a consistent manner – Less opportunity for subject bias – Easier to administer to large groups – Less costly to use than interviews – Structured questionnaires are easier to code and analyze – Possibility of anonymity – Lack of interviewer bias Liker scales: • Consist of several declarative statements (items) expressing viewpoints • Responses are on an agree/disagree continuum (usually 5 or 7 response options) • Responses to items are summed to compute a total scale score Response Biases and Response Sets: • Social desirability response set bias: a tendency to misrepresent attitudes/traits by giving answers that are consistent with prevailing social views • Extreme response set bias: a tendency to consistently express attitudes or feelings in extreme responses(eg strongly agree) • Acquiescence response set (yea- sayers): tendency to agree with statements regardless of their content by people • Nay-sayers response set: tendency to disagree with statements independently of the question content Ways to reduce biases: Biases can be reduced by: • Counterbalancing positively and negatively worded statements • Developing sensitively worded questions • Creating a permissive, non judgmental atmosphere • Guaranteeing confidentiality of responses INTERVIEW Structured interviews: • The questions the interviewer is to ask are designed and written before the interview • Every study subject is asked the same questions in the same way • Advantages of Interviews (Compared with questionnaires) – Higher response rates – Appropriate for more diverse audiences – Opportunities to clarify questions – Opportunity to collect supplementary data through observation OBSERVATION • Observation is a technique for collecting data through visual observation of events. • It requires the nature of the data to be observable. • Structured observation of pre-specified behaviors • The method of data collection chosen for a study should be appropriate for the type of information required • Bio physiologic Measures: In vivo measurements: Performed directly within or on living organisms (e.g. blood pressure measures) • In vitro measurements: Performed outside the organism’s body (e.g. urinalysis) • Phenomena Amenable to Research Observation: – Activities and behavior – Characteristics and conditions of individuals – Skill attainment and performance – Verbal and nonverbal communication – Environmental characteristics Qualitative Data Collection Techniques OBSERVATION • Purpose is to get close enough to study subjects to grasp their point of view • The researcher observe socio-cultural context and obtain insight about daily life Observer has dual purpose: participate and observe. Advantages • Provides deep understanding of the general setting • Allows to observe whether people do what they say they do • Useful to capture a phenomenon and its specific components in greater detail Disadvantages • Time consuming and require good skill in local language, good memory and ability to take note • Enormous data may be generated • Time lag between observation and note taking is likely • Expensive Concerns in Participant Observation • Full participation may be impossible for – Social reasons – Ethical – Legal IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS • One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed answers to questions – often using nondirective techniques to uncover hidden motivations. Advantages • No group pressure • Respondent focus attention and feels important • Long time period encourages revealing new information • Can probe to reveal feelings and motivations • Discussion is flexible and can explore tangential issues Disadvantages • Much more expensive than focus groups • Do not get the same degree of client involvement • Arephysically exhausting for the moderator…reduces the number of people that can be interviewed in a given time period. key informant interview: • Key informant is an individual selected due to his knowledge, previous experience and social status – Selection is not random FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION(FGD) •Focus groups are a method of group discussion in which the interaction between: – the moderator and the group, – as well as the interaction between group members, •serves to elicit information and insights in response to questions. •Encourages group interaction •Important to develop culturally relevant questionnaire •Complement other methods Advantages • Do not discriminate against people who can not read and write • Encourages participants reluctant to be interviewed • Participant interaction helps weed out false and extreme views Disadvantages • The results are more subject to interpretive bias and error • Analysis process is more time-consuming • Investigator risks getting too much unnecessary information • Methods of FGD: – 8 to 10 people at one time – Relatively homogeneous groups – Multiple, heterogeneous groups – Group dynamics – Moderator is key – Relies on general topical guide with plenty of time for interaction • Requirements for Focus Groups: • Good group of information-rich participants – How many people? – How many groups? – Characteristics of participants • Discussion guide and outline – Ground rules – Agenda – Guiding questions • Qualified Moderator – Controls flow – Stimulates discussion • Good Moderator Characteristics: – Able to break down barriers – Must be a quick learner • Good listener • Absorb content • Gauge personalities • Adapt quickly – Must be in control, but not dominating (guide rather than lead) – Must appear to be neither an expert nor naive – Must be flexible to allow for free flow of discussion • Don’t concentrate too rigidly on the moderator guide – Keep the big picture in perspective – Know what is important and when to move on Facilitating Group Dynamics: • Use introductions to set the tone • State your purpose • Encourage everyone to participate; no right or wrong answers • Use an ice breaker to get everyone comfortable • State ground rules, procedural details • Ask for permission to tape • Ensure confidentiality/anonymity • Report to contain summary of group, not individuals Getting and keeping productive participation • Overly talkative (Peacock) : – The person may be eager or simply show off. – Don't be embarrassed or sarcastic: you may want to call on their participation later. – Slow them down with difficult question or interrupt them • Highly argumentative (Lion) : – The person may have a combative, confrontational personality or wants to heckle. • Keep your own temper in check and don't allow other group members to get excited. • Rambler (Monkey) : – They talk about everything except the topic. – When they stop for breath thank and refocus their attention • Personality clash (Fighting cock): – This is when two or more members clash. • Such a clash may divide the group into factions as each party gathers support from other members. – Emphasize points of agreement and minimize disagreement • Won't talk (Tortoise): – This person may be board, indifferent, timed, insecure or may feel superior to the group. – Depend on what is motivating the individual. – Arouse interest by seeking the person’s opinion. • Ask for your opinion (Giraffe): – There is nothing wrong with participants seeking your own personal opinion on a topic. • Avoid solving problems for them let them try by their own • Wrong subject (Elephant): – This person does not ramble but is simply off base. – Restate the last point given. – Above all don't embrass the individual • Inarticulate (Parrot): – Not able to put their thoughts into proper words. – They may follow the discussion but not able to convey their own idea. – Paraphrase what they are saying Pre test • A PRE-TEST usually refers to a small-scale trial of particular research components. • A pretest is a trial run to determine whether the instrument is clearly worded, free from major biases, and useful in generating desired information • When do we carry out a pre-test? • Pre-testing the data collection 1-2 weeks before starting the fieldwork so that you have time to make revisions. • Components to be assessed during the pre-test? – The reactions of respondents to the research procedures and to questions related to sensitive issues. – The appropriateness of study type(s) and research tools selected for the purpose of the study (e.g., validity: Do they collect the information you need? and reliability: Do they collect the data in a precise way?). – The appropriateness of format and wording of questionnaires and interview schedules and the accuracy of the translations. – The time needed to carry out interviews, observations or measurements. 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