GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

■ The anatomy of development deals with the origin

and development of the human organism; it is a
complex process that encompases: phylogeny (or
phylogenesis) - the apparition and historical
development of the human organism via the process
of hominisation; ontogenesis - all the transformations
of the human body from fertilisation until death.
■ Embryology is the science of biology, part of
ontogenesis; it studies the development of a living
being from its origin (as an egg) to the formation of a
viable product until its expulsion from the parent
organism.
Mode and course of reproduction
■ Reproduction or multiplication is sexual or gametic, due to the
differentiation of sex organs.
■ Live pregnancy is the method of reproduction in mammals,
due to the egg developing entirely in the mother’s uterus.
■ Reproduction is dependant on the changes that occur in the
female genitalia (cycli genitales femini), in preparation of
pregnancy and pregnancy itself, and in male genitalia(cycli
genitales masculini)
■ Gametogenesis, the fundamental reproductive cycle, includes
the formation and maturation of the sex cells during
ovogenesis and spermatogenesis.
Mode and course of reproduction
■ Fertilisation occurs through internal
insemination, the sperm cells are introduced
into the female genital tract by the act of
copulation (copulațio), or artificial
insemination
■ Ontogenesis encompases all transformations in
the organism from fertilisation until death; it
has a prenatal period (Embryology’s object of
study) and a postnatal period.
 The prenatal ontogenetic cycle
■ Gestation period and age of the conceived
organism
■ Stages of prenatal period
 Gestation period and age of the
conceived organism
■ Gestation time is 40 weeks or 280 days and is
calculated from the date of last menstrual
period until the date of birth
■ The age - 38 weeks or 266 days and is
calculated from fertilisation until birth
 Prenatal period
■ The preembryonic period represents the first 3
weeks after fertilisation

Week I Fertilisation of the egg, zygote,

fission, morula, early
blastocyst

Week II Bilaminar blastocyst

Week III Trilaminar blastocyst
 Prenatal period stages
■ The embryonic period corresponds to weeks 3-
8 and has the following stages:
- neural tube stage
- early and final branchial period
- limb bud stage (early and final)
- segmented ridge period
 Gametogenesis
■ MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
(Cyclus genitalis masculinus)
■ FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES(Cycli
genitales feminini)- The ovarian cycle
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES

■ Ovarian cycle
■ Menstrual cycle
■ Pregnancy cycle
■ Mammalian cycle
 The ovarian cycle
■ Begins in puberty and lasts until menopause; it has a monthly
rithm
■ It is regulated by hypothalamic-pituitary hormones and GnRH
together with FSH and LH
■ The phases of the ovarian cycle and duration during a 28 day
menstrual cycle:

Ovogenesis phase Gametogenesis

Follicular phase D 1-13
Ovulation D 14
Corpus luteum phase D 15-25
Involution phase D 26-28
 Follicular phase
■ At birth the ovaries contain 400000
primordial follicles, composed of a primary
oocyte surrounded by a layer of epithelial
follicular cells (called granular cells)
■ After a period of latency, only 300-400
primordial follicles mature (from puberty to
menopause)
■ Maturation occurs in 3 stages, at the same time
as ovogenesis
 The primary follicle
■ It evolves from the primordial follicle under the
influence of FSH
■ Has the shape of a full spheroid (preantral follicular
stage); composition: a primary oocyte surrounded by
proliferative granular cells that rearrange into several
layers
■ Granular cells secrete an amorphous polysaccharidic
material that forms a semipermeable refractile
membrane, the zona pellucida, which possesses active
transportation capabilities
■ Although several primordial follicles (5-15) are
activated, only one will reach primary follicle
(dominant follicle) stage, except in fraternal twin
 The secondary follicle
■ The secondary follicle becomes hollow due to the confluence
of small interior spaces formed in the antral stage. The
eccentric cavity forms the follicular antrum and contains a
gelatinous fluid, glycoproteins and reserves of estrogen (liquor
follicularis)
■ The primary oocyte is larger, is eccentric in a group of
granular cells, forming an eccentric projection inside the
follicle (cumulus oophorus)
■ granular cells neighboring the oocyte are arranged around it in
a radial shaped crown (corona radiata)
■ The ovarian stroma differentiates into two sheaths:
- the internal sheath formed by secretory cells (thecal
endocrinocytes ) which synthesise estrogen
- the external sheath is a dense fibrous conjunctive material
 The tertiary mature follicle
■ The tertiary follicle (Graaf follicle)
corresponds with the preovulatory follicular
stage
■ It is large(15-25 mm), the follicular antrum is
wide, with an increased amount of follicular
fluid
■ The primary oocyte becomes secondary by
undergoing its first mitotic division
■ The thecal cells begin undergo luteinization
and begin producing progesterone
Ciclul ovarian
 Ovulation
■ An avascular area appears on the surface of the
tertiary follicle - it is the “follicular stigma”, where
the follicular sheaths rupture
■ Ovulation is the expulsion of the secondary oocyte
and follicular fluid from the mature follicle; every
month one is released alternatively from the two
ovaries (ovulație uniovulară)
■ Ovulation takes place due to influence of both local
and extragonadal factors: increased LH, increased
intrafollicular pressure, proteolytic enzymes,
prostaglandin secretion, local vasodilation
 Ovulation
■ The egg is composed of the secondary oocyte
(after the first meiotic division) and its
protective cover (zona pellucida, corona
radiata); it is detached from the cumulus
oophorus and becomes free
 Luteal phase
■ The residual follicle transforms into the corpus
luteum through the process of luteinisation
■ Granular cells accumulate lutein (a yellow lipidic
pigment) and become luteal cells that secrete
progesterone
■ The cells of the internal Theca contribute to the
formation of the corpus luteum and to the secretion of
other steroids in addition to progesterone
■ The process of luteinisation and the formation of the
corpus luteum takes place due to the LH hormone.
 Luteal phase
■ If the oocyte is fertilised the corpus luteum
persists, continues to grow and ultimately
occupies nearly half of the ovarian surface; it
becomes the gestational corpus luteum due to
the effect of chorionic gonadotropin secreted
by the embryonic trophoblast. It secretes
progesterone until the end of month 4,
protecting the pregnancy until the placenta
begins secreting progesterone.
 Involution phase
■ If fertilisation does not occur the corpus
luteum devolves and stops secreting
progesterone (corpus luteum menstruationis).
■ The corpus luteum menstruationis regresses
into fibrous scar - the corpus albicans
■ A new phase of follicular maturation is
triggered
 The menstrual cycle
■ The endometrium, under the influence of
ovarian hormones, is prepared for implantation
of the fertilised egg from puberty until
menopause
■ The endometrial modifications are cyclical,
last approximately 28 days across 4 stages
Follicular phase D 5-14
Luteal phase D 15-27
Ischemic phase D 28
Menstrual phase D 0-4
 Follicular phase
■ Also known as the proliferative phase; it
begins with the end of the preceding menstrual
phase under the influence of follicular
estrogen; it lasts until the ovarian follicle
reaches the pre-ovulation stage
■ The superficial endometrial layer reforms from
the profound base layer and increases to 1-5
cm thickness due to proliferation and
elongation of endometrial glands
 Luteal phase
■ Also called the secretory or pre-gestational
phase; starts after ovulation due to
progesterone produced by the corpus luteum
and lasts approximately 13 days
■ The endometrium grows to 7 mm thick,
endometrial glands branch out and the lumens
contains secretions; glycogen accumulates in
the epithelial cells
■ The endometrial arteries (spiral arteries) are
long, helical and located parallel to the glands
 Ischemic phase
■ The premenstrual phase begins one day before
menstruation if the oocyte was not fertilised
and the corpus luteum devolves
■ Blood stasis and vasoconstriction determine
the ischemia of the functional endometrial
layer; it is thus prepared for desquamation
 Menstrual phase
■ The superficial endometrial layer (with
degenerative modifications of the
endometrium) peels off together with bleeding,
also known as menstruation
■ Beginning with day 4 of the menstrual phase
the endometrium in the base proliferative layer
begins to regenerate; a new follicular phase
begins.
The menstrual cycle
 The pregnancy cycle
■ Pregnancy is the period of maternal life lasting from the
egg’s fertilisation until birth
■ Gestation period has 2 stages:
1. Tube stage - passage of the zygote through the fallopian
tube - average of 3 days
2. Uterine stage - the time spent in the uterus. It has 3 phases:
- preimplantation: days 4 - 5 after fertilisation - the morula/
early blastocyst is still free floating in the uterus
- implantation: days 6-8, the blastocyst affixes itself to the
uterine mucosa
-placental stage: the placenta is formed and starts
functioning
 The mammary cycle
■ The inactive mammary gland becomes functional for
pregnancy and lactation
■ The proliferative phase: proliferation of the glandular acini and
ducts under the influence of ovarian estrogen
■ The colostrum phase: begins in the second half of the
pregnancy and lasts until a few days after it; the secretion -
colostrum
■ Lactation phase: the glandular acini dilate and milk production
begins, induced by prolactin. După perioada de lactație glanda
regresează și revine la faza inactivă
■ Involution phase: after menopause the mammary glands
atrophy
 Gametogenesis
■ The process of formation and maturation of sex cells
(germinal cells) through spermatogenesis and oogenesis
■ Gametogenesis preserves the human chromosome
formula across the generations: 46 de chromosomes, with
44 autosomes and 2 gonosomes (gonosome X female;
gonosome Y male).
■ Female 44+X; Male 44+XY
■ Meiosis is the indirect division of sex cells; it reduces the
diploid genetic formula of 46 chromosomes to 23
(haploid); diploid state is reestablished in the zygote
 Meiosis
■ Meiosis has 2 successive phases for maturation:
■ The primary meiotic division (primary or reduction
division)
■ The secondary meiotic division (equal)
■ Consequences of meiosis:
- reduction of chromosomes to haploid formula
- a new genetic combination in haploid
chromosomes
- establishment of the gonosome in gametes (the
oocyte - X, the sperm X or Y)
 The primary meiotic division
■ It has a long prophase, subdivided into 5 phases:
■ Increased DNA synthesis and replication of
chromosomes into 2 chromatids
■ Homologous chromosomes unite through conjugation
forming bivalent chromosomes with 4 chromatids
(tetraploid), sufficient for the formation of 4 haploid
gametes
■ Bivalent chromosomes become adherent and
exchange genes for recombinations in the haploid
gametes
 The primary meiotic division
■ During anaphase haploid numbers of
chromosomes move to 2 opposite poles; thus
each (primary) diploid gametocyte creates two
(secondary) haploid gametes
■ In spermatogenesis - 2 secondary
spermatocytes; in oogenesis - one secondary
oocyte and the first polar body
 Secondary meiotic division
■ Is similar to a regular mitosis - it maintains the
haploid formula in the newly formed sex cells
■ In the spermatogenic cycle secondary meiosis
takes place immediately after the first meiotic
division
■ In the oogenic cycle secondary meiosis
becomes complete only if the egg is fertilised
after ovulation
 The spermatogenic cycle
■ The precursor cells are endoblasts from the
wall of the yolk sack that migrate to the
gonadal ridge in weeks 3-5
■ In the gonadal ridge they are called primordial
germ cells; through proliferation they become
spermatogonia
■ Spermatogonia are medium sized spherical
cells that are present in large numbers in the
embryonic male gonads
 The spermatogenic cycle
■ The spermatogenic cycle has 2 phases:
- spermatogenesis - transformation of
spermatogonia into spermatocytes(I & II), then
spermatids through mitosis and meiosis
- spermiogenesis - transformation of spermatids
into spermatozoa without cell division,
through cytodifferentiation
 Spermatogenesis
■ Spermatogonia are present in a dormant state prior to
puberty. During puberty they start multiplying by
mitosis (multiplication phase) - this continues until
death.
■ Spermatogonia A form reserve cells for the cycle,
from which spermatogonia B result
■ Spermatogonia B are formed by the division (mitosis)
of spermatogonia A; they mature without division
(growth phase), becoming primary spermatocytes.
 Spermatogenesis
■ The primary spermatocyte has a diploid chromosome
formula; it undergoes a 21 day prophase and through
primary reduction meiosis forms 2 secondary haploid
spermatocytes.
■ The secondary spermatocyte has 22 autosomes and
one X or Y(male heterogamety) gonosome. After
equal secondary meiosis a spermatid is the result
■ In spermatogenesis 2 secondary spermatocytes and 4
spermatozoa form from 1primary spermatocyte
 Spermiogenesis
■ It takes place with no cell division, through
cytodifferentiation
■ The spermatid, a round and immobile cell, will be
converted into a spermatozoon, an elongated, mobile,
flagellated cell.
■ The nucleus condenses and elongates, creating the
head of the spermatozoon
■ The Golgi complex becomes the acrosome
■ The mitochondria form a spiral sheath at the base of
the flagellum to provide energy for the flagellum
■ The centriole forms the flagellum
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
CYCLE
 Ovogenesis
■ Primordial cells migrate from the wall of the yolk sack to the
gonadal ridge; they proliferate during the early fetal period
and become ovogonia
■ Ovogonia are surrounded by primordial cortical follicles of the
fetal ovary and become primary oocytes
■ Primary oocytes number in the millions during the fetal
period. Before birth the number drops below one million per
ovary and at puberty only 400000 remain, the rest devolve.
■ Primary oocytes with a diploid chromosomal formula begin
the prophase of meiosis I at birth and remain in this stage until
puberty because follicular cells secrete a hormone that inhibits
their maturation.
 Ovogenesis
■ During a menstrual cycle, between puberty
and menopause, on average a single primary
oocyte will continue the primary meiotic
division. Most primary oocytes remain in the
ovarian follicles until climacterium in meiosis
I prophase, then degenerate.
 Ovogenesis
■ The primary oocyte finalises meiotic division prior to
ovulation, resulting in::
■ The secondary oocyte (ovocytus secundarius) with a haploid
chromosomal formula (22+x) and the entire cytoplasm of the primary
oocyte.
■ The first polar body (corpus polare primum) , small, with no cytoplasm
and a haploid nucleus.
■ The secondary oocyte, expelled by ovulation, is in an
incomplete meiosis II. It only becomes complete in case of
fertilisation, inside the fertilised egg, also creating the second
polar body(corpus polare secundum).
 Ovogenesis
■ The phases of the ovarian cycle (ovogenic and follicular) are
simultaneous, as follows:
■ The primary and secondary follicles contain the primary
oocytes in the prophase of meiosis I
■ The tertiary mature follicle contains the secondary oocyte
and the first polar body, with meiotic division complete.
■ During ovulation, the expelled egg is at the beginning of
meiosis II, which ends in a fertilised egg.
■ During ovogenesis a single mature egg and 2(3) polar bodies
develop from a single primary oocyte.
 The spermatozoon
■ It is a motile sperm cell, 50-60 microns long,
with a head, neck and a flagellum.
■ The head is elliptical (helicoid) and is
composed of a nucleus (with haploid 22+X or
22+Y complement of chromosomes) and an
acrosome (acrosoma) or “perforatorium” with
a “helmet” containing proteolytic enzymes on
the tip.
■ The neck is the short segment(pars conjugens)
, the connection between head and tail, and
acts as a joint.
 The spermatozoon
■ The tail or flagellum is 40-50 microns long and has 3
parts:
■ The intermediate part contains an axial filament

(axonema sau filamentum axiale) around which a

spiral mitochondrial sheath is located. This
provides energy.
■ The main part, the longest part of the flagellum,

contains the axoneme in a fibrous sheath.

■ The terminal part of the tail is composed of the

exposed axoneme (with no sheath)

 The spermatozoon
■ It becomes mobile inside the deferent duct,
moving against the current, with a maximum
speed of 2-3 mm inside the female genital
tract.
■ The life span of the spermatozoa is a few
weeks inside the testicle and 1-2 days inside
the female genital tract. Temperatures above
28 degrees C and acid pH levels (vaginal
secretions - pH=4) shorten their lifespan.
The male reproductive cycle
 The egg
■ The mature secondary oocyte is the largest cell
of the human body, with a diameter of 150
microns; composition:
■ Round nucleus (location varies) with a haploid
chromosomal formula (22 + X).
■ Ooplasm, composed of cytoplasm and
deuteroplasm (vitellus, lecit) in a smaller quantity.
(ovum oligolecitalum).
■ Ovolema , the plasmatic cell membrane.
 The egg
■ The mature egg (ovum ovulatum) has the following layers:
■ Ovolema,
■ Zona pellucida - surrounds the plasmatic membrane; it is a
product of the follicular cells
■ Corona radiata - the external layer of follicular cells from
the cumulus oophorus.
■ The perivitelline space, between the ovolema and the zona
pellucida and contains the first (if fertilised) and second polar
body.
 The egg
■ During the female reproductive cycle only 400 out of
400000 primary oocytes reach maturity; the rest
degenerate, become atretic. occasionally a follicle
may contain 2-3 primary oocytes .
■ The ovulated egg remains viable in the female genital
tract and capable of being fertilised for approximately
24 hours.
■ The maturation of the egg and ovulation can be
stopped with hormonal contraception (suppressing
LH secretion).
 Fertilisation
■ It is the process of penetration and joining of the
spermatozoon with the egg and the formation of the zygote
(zygota).
■ It takes place in the lateral third of the fallopian tube where the
egg and spermatozoa are transported.
■ Spermatozoa in the vagina reach the fallopian tube in tens
of minutes by their motility and peristaltic contractions of
the tube and uterus.
■ The ovulated egg este guided into the tube from the
peritoneal cavity by the motions of the fimbriae. It remains
viable for about 24 hours and then degenerates.
 Fertilisation
■ Fertilisation in humans is monospermic
(monospermia), realised by a single spermatozoon.
Fertilisation by 2 simultaneous penetrations of
spermatozoa is very rare (69 chromosome embryo).
 Fertilisation
■ Fertilisation takes place in several ways:
1) Natural internal insemination (copulation)
2) Artificial insemination (in case of sterility); the
spermatozoa are introduced into the female genital tract,
followed by in vivo fertilisation.
3) In vitro fertilisation - the egg and spermatozoa are kept in
lab conditions until term after fertilisation occurs in controlled
conditions.
4) Superfecundatio - the simultaneous fertilisation of several
eggs, resulting in many zygotes and multiple twin pregnancies.
 Sperm penetration
■ The first phase of fertilisation is penetration through
the corona radiata; the acrosome contains
hialuronidase which disperses the corona radiata cells
in the contact location.
■ Penetration through the zona pellucida, the second
phase, occurs through proteolytic activity (zona
lizina).
■ Fusion of the spermatozoon and egg membranes is
the third phase. The spermatozoon enters the
cytoplasm of the egg and the tail detaches and
degenerates.
 Reaction of the egg
1) The plasmatic membrane, under the influence of an
acrosomal enzyme (neuraminidase), forms an impenetrable
barrier for the other spermatozoa (the fertilisation
membrane). Their penetrations are thus blocked.
2) The secondary oocyte immediately finalizes secondary
meiosis after penetration and becomes the mature egg and
also forms the second polar body which will relocate next to
the first in the perivitelline space.
3) An intense metabolic activity is triggered, necessary for the
next stages.
 Consequences of fertilisation
1) The two nuclei (sperm and egg), called the male and
female pronuclei, fuse (syngamy) and the single diploid
nucleus of the egg is the result.
2) The pronuclei (both haploid) double (replicate) their
DNA and after fusing will restore the diploid number of
chromosomes in the zygote nucleus, which organises for
future mitotic divisions.
3) The genetic sex is determined by the sperm (X or Y).
Female sex is 44+X, male sex 44+Y.
 Consequences of fertilisation
4) Hereditary traits are transmitted and the male and
female genetic material create new recombination
potential (genotype).
5) The fertilised egg is formed (ovum fertilizatum):
• Male and female pronuclei.

• Polar body I and II.

• The centriole of the spermatozoon (located in the

neck) becomes the zygote’s centriole.

 Consequences of fertilisation
6) Fertilisation initiates formation of the zygote and
triggers the fission process.
7) The zygote (zygota) is the fertilised ovum
surrounded by the zona pellucida, with a diploid
nucleus (nucleus zygoticus) formed by fusion of the
pronuclei, with a diameter no greater than the egg.
The zygote particles are reorganised with distinct
polarity.
Fertilisation
 The fusion of the two pronuclei is called syngamy. The
fertilised egg transforms into the zygote (Zygota) through
Zygosis.