Chapter Four

DATA COLLECTION
Research is empirical and reality referent because it is based on observable data; which is the end result of any
research.
This means that researchers must collect reliable data on which to base their conclusions; data being anything
given or admitted as a fact on which research information is based, or anything assumed or used as a basis of
reckoningrch procedure.

CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH DATA

Data can be classified as qualitative and quantitative. Data is quantitative if it is expressed in terms of amounts
or magnitude.
 Quantitative data describes how much, or many of the characteristics of interest are present. Qualitative data,
on the other hand, is expressed normatively or descriptively.
 Qualitative data describes which characteristics of interest are present or why they are present.
 Data Collection Methods
Questionnaire Method: A questionnaire is a collection of precise pre-formulated written items designed to yield
specific information to meet particular needs for research, and to which research participants are expe
It can be used to determine the level of knowledge on an issue, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, feelings,
experiences and perceptions as well as to gather information about the respondents.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
There are three types or formats of questionnaires used in research: structured, unstructured, semi-structured
questionnaires.
 Structured Questionnaire
A structured questionnaire is formed solely from close-ended (or forced-response) items. Close-ended or forced-
response items restrict the respondents in the kind of information to provide and how to provide it.
A structured questionnaire is recommended when a researcher has some idea of potential answers to the
problem or when a researcher wants to compare different groups with regard to an issue of interest.
Close-ended (forced-response) items may take different forms. These include rank-order, multiple choice and
rating scale items among others.

RANKING (COMPARATIVE) ITEMS

The ranking items questionnaire require respondents to place certain factors that have been determined as
relevant to an issue of interest in a particular order according to some criteria.
They invite participants to make relative judgments against similar characteristics by comparing two or more
objects to make a choice among them.
 Cont…
Rank order items
rank order items require participants to arrange certain factors that have been identified as related to a concept in increasing
or decreasing order according to some criteria.
Rank the following factors in order in which they hinder your achievement in Bachelor Degree, using a scale of 1 - 5, with 1
being the most and 5 the least.
Factors hinders achievement of Rank Order
Bachelor Degree of Medical
1. Teaching-learning facilities
2. School administration
3. Home background
4. Economic status
5. Teaching quality

PAIRED COMPARISON ITEMS

Paired comparison items require participants to express their attitude by making a choice between two cases, though more
 Cont…
PAIRED COMPARISON ITEMS
Paired comparison items require participants to express their attitude by making a choice between two cases,
though more cases can also be accommodated.
Pair the following factors in order in which they hinder your achievement in Medical Doctor. (A). Teaching-
learning facilities; (B). School administration; (C). Examination; (D). Economic status. The one that is most
effective is first order, and an arrow should come from it to the other factor (second order).

First order Second order

A A

B B

C C

D D
 Cont…
MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
Multiple choice items require respondents to choose one alternative from a set of possible alternatives.
Which of the factors listed below most hinder your achieve net in MEDICAL DOCTOR?
Teaching-learning facilities School administration economic status

RATING SCALE ITEMS

Rating scale items require participants to indicate their feelings, opinions, thoughts, or behaviors on a series of
gradation of levels or values that describe the various degrees of something.
Rating scales involve qualitative description of some aspects of a variable and are suitable when the variable of
interest varies in terms of ability, intensity, quality or frequency.
 Cont…
LIKERT SCALE
IT consists of statements that express either positive and negative, or favorable and unfavorable positions towards a
given standpoint to which a respondent is expected to react by indicating his or her agreement or disagreement with
it. A respondent reacts to a statement with several degrees of agreement or disagreements which constitute a scale,
with strong agreement to strong disagreement on extreme ends, and several intermediate points between them.
Give your opinion on the following statements by checking the most suitable alternative.

Statement Strongly Agree Neither disagree Strongly

agree disagree
Teaching-learning resources are the
most important factor that hinders my
achievement in Bachelor.
School administration is the most
important factor that hinders my
achievement in bachelor.
Home background is the most
important factor that hinders my
achievement in Bachelor.
 Unstructured Questionnaires
Unstructured questionnaire are formed solely from open-ended (free response) items which require participants to
react in their own self constructed words.
They enable a researcher to obtain information that would otherwise not be forthcoming if structured questionnaires
were used.
They also require less effort to construct since a researcher does not have to think and structure possible responses.
 Semi-Structured Questionnaires
A semi-structured questionnaire is formed from a blend of close ended and free-response items in a single
instrument.
They are used in areas where a researcher has some idea of the possible answers while in the same study there are
areas where the researcher is not so well informed.
Semi-structured questionnaires enable researchers to balance between the quantity and quality of data collected.
They also make data analysis simpler than using entirely unstructured instruments would. On the other hand, they
provide more information than using entirely structured instruments would yield
This balance between the quality and quantity of data is useful for fuller explanation of phenomena under
investigation.
 The Interview Method
An interview is a person-to-person verbal communication in which one person (or groups of persons) asks the other
person (or a group of persons) questions designed to elicit information or opinions.
Interviews bring researchers and respondents face to face, and enable the collection of first-hand information over
what people think, know, or feel about an issue at hand.

Characteristics of the Interview Method

Interviews can collect wide range of information including to:
 Behavior, for example what one is doing, or has done in the past. Such questions can elicit descriptions of
experience; behavior or activities that could have been observed but were not. Opinions or values; such as what
somebody thinks over an issue or a topic.
 Feelings; like one’s attitude about an issue, and especially those directed towards emotional experiences of the
respondents.
 Knowledge; in order to obtain factual information as contrasted to opinion or feelings.
 Sensory perceptions; of what one has heard, seen, tasted, touched or smelt, and vi. Background or demographic
issues; such as age, education, religion.
 Techniques of Interview
Key Informants Interview (KII): In key informants’ (or key actors) interviews, data is collected from individuals
who are deemed to have special information or perceptions that would otherwise be unavailable to a researcher if
people were interviewed at random.

Survey Interviews: Survey interviews are interviews conducted on individuals or groups that have been selected at
random. Survey interviews can be confirmatory; when they are structured to verify information from other sources;
or they can be participants construct as when they are used to determine how informants structure their social and
physical world.

Group Interviews: These are interviews that address questions to homogenous groups of between 5 - 12 people who
have been assembled for this specific purpose, and who have been selected because they are well-informed about
the issue at hand.
1. focus group discussion (FGD): decisions on what is data are made by the researcher after synthesis and
analysis of the data collected from the group.
2. Nominal group (NMG): it is the group that determines what counts as data through consensus.
 Observation Method
Observation generally refers to seeing and noticing; the art of watching carefully to see and notice features of
interest. Even though people observe every day, not all such observations are always scientific.
An observation becomes scientific if:
 It serves a particular formulated purpose (i.e. it is related to some objective); or if it is related to certain
questions (i.e. it is intended to generate answers.)
 It is planned methodically (i.e. it is done according to some approved format.)
 It is recorded systematically.
 It is subjected to checks and balances of reliability and validity.
 Types of Observations
Direct and Indirect Observation:
In a direct observation the researcher looks at the behavior (response) of the subjects he or she is interested in as the
behavior occurs.
indirect observation,
the researcher observes the effects or results of the behavior rather than the behavior itself.
A researcher may observe archives (written records), or physical traces by looking at what has been left behind
(accumulation or accretion) or what has been taken away (erosion) after the behavior has occurred.
 Structured and Unstructured Observation
An observation, whether direct or indirect, can be open-ended or close ended.
open-ended (unstructured) observation, the researcher attempts to obtain a complete record of everything that
happens within a particular time (e.g. students go to the museum between 2.00 p.m. and 4.0.0 pm.
close-ended (structured) observation, the researcher limits his or her observations to particular specific preselected
issues (e.g. students go out to the museum between 2.00 p.m. and 4.00 pm.
 Observation Procedure
Set out the objectives of the observation: Whatever it is to be observed must be clearly described, and should reflect
the research purpose and questions.
Define the attributes of the observation: which are the characteristics of the objectives stated.
Select observation modes: A decision should be made on the form of observation and how the observation will be
recorded.
Train the observers: It is necessary that the observers be inducted on what, how and where the observation will be
conducted.
Conduct the observation: being ethical and procedural at entry, data collection and exit stages of the scientific
observation.
Record the observation: Observations must be recorded otherwise the facts and events are easily forgotten.
 Document Analysis Method
Virtually anything that has been written down in some form and virtually any object imaginable is a potential
source of information.
Documents are written or printed materials that have been produced in some form or another and include annual
reports, artwork, bills, books, cartons.
Broadly, documents refer to any kind of information that exist in some type of written or printed form.
Document or content analysis is a method that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way
through the analysis of their communications.
 Types of Document Analysis
frequency counts content analysis: The researcher then counts carefully the number of times the coding category is
found in the document.
Qualitative (or non-frequency counts) is similar to the frequency counts analysis, but there is no counting of
occurrences of units in various categories.