Research Design

Research Design
It refers to the overall plan or strategy
outlining how a research study will be
conducted.
It involves defining the research
questions, selecting appropriate methods,
outlining data collection techniques.
It helps researchers systematically gather
information and find answers to their
inquries
Types of Research Designs

Descriptive Research Design

It aims to describe and depict the characteristics
of a population or phenomenon being studied.
It does not involve manipulating variables but
focuses on observing and reporting what already
exists.
It helps in understanding the present situation,
behaviours, beliefs, or conditions prevalent within
a particular group or setting.
It often involves surveys, observations, case
studies , and analysis of existing data.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
A.Descriptive Normative Survey
It focuses on understanding and describing what
people commonly perceive as socially accepted or
normal behaviors within a particular group or
society.
It aims to capture the prevailing attitudes,
beliefs, or behaviors within a population
regarding specific norms or standards.
By collecting data through questionnaires or
interviews, researchers seek to describe and
document the existing norms or behaviors rather
than prescribing or judging them.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Normative Survey
Example:Conducting a descriptive normative
survey in a university setting to understand the
prevailing attitudes and behaviors related to
academic integrity among students.
The survey could inquire about perceptions of
cheating, views on plagiarism and attitudes
towards collaboration on assignments or
exams.Questions might include scenarios about
sharing answers, using unauthorized materials or
copying other’s work.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Normative Survey
Example:Through this survey, researchers aim to
describe the norms and perceptions regarding
academic honesty among the student population.
They seek to understand what students perceive
as acceptable or normal behaviour in academic
settings, without prescribing or judging these
behaviors. This information could be valuable for
designing interventions or educational programs
to promote academic integrity based on the
existing norms within the university.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Correlational Research Study
It examines the relationship between two or
more variables without manipulating them.
The main purpose is to determine if and how
changes in one variable correspond to changes in
another.
It does not establish causation but focuses on
understanding the degree and direction of
association between variables.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Correlational Research Study
Example: In a study examining the relationship
between study hours and academic performance,
researchers might collect data on the number of
hours students study per week and their
corresponding grades. By analyzing this data,
they aim to determine if there is a correlation
between study time and academic performance –
whether higher study hours are associated with
better grades or not.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Correlational Research Study
Example: In a study examining the relationship
between study hours and academic performance,
researchers might collect data on the number of
hours students study per week and their
corresponding grades. By analyzing this data,
they aim to determine if there is a correlation
between study time and academic performance –
whether higher study hours are associated with
better grades or not.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Evaluative Study
Is a research approach that aims to describe and
assess a particular program, intervention, policy,
or system based on specific criteria or standards.
It involves evaluating the effectiveness,
efficiency, relevance, or impact of something by
gathering data and describing its characteristics
or outcomes.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Evaluative Study
Example:, in the context of education, a
descriptive evaluative study might assess the
effectiveness of a new teaching method by
collecting data on student performance,
engagement levels, and teacher feedback. It
would aim to describe how the new method
aligns with predefined criteria of success and
effectiveness, providing insights into its strength,
weaknesses, and overall impact.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Assessment/ Evaluation Study
It involves systematically collecting and
analyzing information to determine the value,
quality, effectiveness, or performance of a
program, product, policy or system.
Its primary goal is to provide insight into the
strengths and weaknesses of the subject being
studied.
It employs various methods such as surveys,
interviews, observations, or statistical analysis to
gather data.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Assessment/ Evaluation Study
Example:an evaluation study of a public health
campaign might assess its impact on changing
people’s behaviors by analyzing data on
awareness levels, changes in habits, or health
outcomes before and after the campaign . The
evaluation would aim to determine the
effectiveness of the campaign in achieving its
goals.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Comparative Study
It involves describing and comparing different
groups, situations, or variables to identify
similarities and differences.
It aims to understand characteristics, behaviors
or phenomena across these groups or variables
without necessarily exploring causation.
Types of Research Designs
Examples of Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive Comparative Study
Example: in a study comparing the dietary habits
of two different communities, researchers might
collect data on food consumption patterns,
preferences or nutritional intake in each
community. By describing and comparing these
aspects, the study aims to highlight similarities
and differences between the dietary practices of
the two groups without inferring cause-and-
effect relationships.
Types of Research Designs
B.Historical Research Design
It involves studying past events, behaviors
cultures, or phenomena to understand how they
have shaped the present.
It focuses on analyzing historical documents,
records, artifacts, or narratives to gain insights
into the evolution, causes and influences behind
certain events or conditions.
It aims to reconstruct and interpret past events
or phenomena within their historical context,
Types of Research Designs
B.Historical Research Design
Example: A study examining the impact of the
Industrial Revolution on societal changes in a
specific region during the 19th century.
Researchers might gather historical documents
such as government records, newspapers,
personal diaries, and economic reports from that
period. They would analyze these primary sources
to understand the economic, social, and cultural
transformations brought about by the Industrial
Revolution in that particular area.
Types of Research Designs
Approaches to Studying the Past
1.Chronological Studies: Tracing events or
developments in sequential order to understand
their progression over time.
2. Biographical Studies:Focusing on the life and
impact of an individual or a group of individuals
within a historical context.
3.Historiography: Examining and analyzing how
historical events have been interpreted, recorded,
and presented over time by different historians.
4.Archival Studies:Analyzing primary sources
such as documents, letters, artifacts or records to
reconstruct historical events or phenomena.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
It is a scientific approach where researchers
manipulate and control variables to test
hypotheses and establish cause-and –effect
relationships between variables.
It typically includes manipulating one variable
(independent variable) to observe its effect on
another variable( dependent variable) while
controlling for other factors.
This design helps researchers draw conclusions
about the relationships between variables
through systematic experimentation.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
Group: refers to a set of participants who share
specific characteristics and are treated or
exposed to certain conditions or interventions.
Two main types of groups in an experiment
A.Control Group:It serves as a comparison and
does not receive the treatment, allowing
researchers to assess the effects of the treatment
B.Experimental Group:It receives the treatment
or intervention being studied.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
Control group: A group that serves as a baseline
for comparison in a study.
It is treated similarly to the experimental group
but is not subjected to the specific treatment or
intervention being tested.
The purpose is to provide a standard against
which the effects of the treatment given to the
experimental group can be measured, helping
researchers determine whether the intervention
had a significant impact compared to no
treatment or an alternative treatment.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
Experimental group: It refers to the group of
participants or subjects that receives the specific
treatment, intervention or manipulation of
variables being studied.
It is the group in an experiment where
researchers apply the condition they want to
investigate.
The outcomes or changes observed in the
experimental group are compared to those in the
control group to assess the effects of the
treatment or manipulation being tested.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
The Effects of Fertilizer on Plant Growth
Experimental Group: Plants receiving a specific type or
amount of fertilizer
Control Group: Plants receiving no fertilizer or receiving
only water.
Both groups of plants are grown under similar conditions in
terms of light, temperature, soil and other relevant
factors.Over a defined period, researchers measure
parameters such as plant, height, leaf count, or overall
biomass in both groups. By comparing the growth of plants
in the experimental group(with fertilizer) to those in the
control group (without fertilizer), scientists can determine
the impact of the fertilizer on plant growth.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
In experimental research, pre-test and post-test
assessments are conducted to measure the
dependent variable both before and after the
experimental treatment or intervention.
Pre-test: it occurs before any treatment or
intervention is administered.
It serves as a baseline measurement of the
dependent variable(s) being studied.
It helps establish the initial status or condition of
the participants or subjects.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
Post-test:
It occurs after the experimental treatment or
intervention has been given.
It helps measure any changes or effects caused
by the treatment on the dependent variable(s).
Comparing the pre-test and post-test results
allows researchers to evaluate the impact or
effectiveness of the intervention.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
The Effects of a New Exercise Program on
Cardiovascular Fitness
Pre-Test: Participants’ cardiovascular fitness
levels are measured using standardized fitness
test( endurance test etc.)before starting the
exercise program. The assessment establishes the
baseline fitness levels of the participants.
Intervention(Exercise Program); Participants
engage in a structured exercise regimen
comprising aerobic activities, strength training,
and flexibility exercises for a defined period, six
weeks.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
The Effects of a New Exercise Program on
Cardiovascular Fitness
Post-Test: After six-week exercise program,
participants’ cardiovascular fitness levels are
measured again using the same standardized
fitness test employed. This assessment helps
determine any changes or improvements in
partipants’ cardiovascular fitness as a result of
the exercise program.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
An Experiment in plant growth applying fertilizer
Pre-Test: Plants of the same species and similar
sizes are selected and their initial heights are
measured. The plants are then divided into two
groups: the experimental group and the control
group ; Before applying any fertilizer, the baseline
measurements of plants’ height are recorded.
Intervention( Fertilizer Application): The
experimental group receives a specific type of
fertilizer suitable for promoting plant growth,
following recommended guidelines.The control
group, however, does not receive any fertilizer.
Types of Research Designs
3.Experimental Research Design
An Experiment in plant growth applying fertilizer
Post-Test:After designated period of time, the
heights of the plants in both groups are measured
again. The post-test measurements allow
researchers to compare the growth of the plants
in the experimental group ( fertilizer-treated0
with those in the control group (untreated) to
assess any differences in growth rates.
Questionnaire Survey - Steps
1. Define the problem/ survey topic
2. Use previous studies & expert advice
3. Define research questions/ objectives
4. Define study population and sample size
5. Develop a preliminary questionnaire
6. Pretest the questionnaire (similar subjects)
7. Cover letter (Introducing the study, deadline
for return, guarantees for data anonymity)
8. Stamped & self-addressed envelop
9. Follow-up letter for non-respondents
Questionnaire Survey

Mail
Web-based
Questionnaires Group
E-mail
Interview
Questionnaire - Advantages
Broad coverage (local, national, international)
Frank and anonymous answers
Economical for large population
Less Time consuming
Quantitative data (easy to analyze)
Filling at a convenient time
Easy to respond (fixed responses)
Good for sensitive & ego-related Qs.
Original hard-to-obtain data
Questionnaire - Disadvantages
No clarification for ambiguous questions
Inadequate motivation to respond
Poorly worded or direct questions
Unattractive style and format
Low response rate
Inaccurate responses – no verification
Limited fixed responses
Cannot uncover causes or relationships
for attitudes, beliefs, actions
Type of Questions

Factual: Age, gender, education, experience

(often used to investigate relationship)
Informative: What respondents know
about a given topic (How do you come to
know about the availability of e-journals?)
Attitudinal/Opinion: To obtain info about
respondents’ beliefs, feelings, values (Do
to agree that current copyright law is fair?)
Self-perception: Allows subjects to
compare their ideas or actions with others
(How active are you in the community work?
How will you describe your computing skills?)
Type of Questions
Standard of Action: How respondents will
act in a situation (For which party you will vote
in the next election? Will you join the organ
donation society? )
Projective Questions: Allow respondents to
answer in an indirect manner by imposing
their feelings, attitudes or beliefs on others
(Are most of the Singaporeans quitters or stayers?
Are students happy with the grading scheme?)
Structured/Unstructured Qs
Another possible categorization of questions:

Unstructured Questions: Allow respondents

to reply freely without having to select one of
several provided responses (also called open-
ended questions)
Useful for exploratory studies in which
various dimensions and facets of a
problem are examined
Usually difficult to analyze responses
 What steps are required to improve the quality
of National Service?
Usually low response rate
Structured Questions
Provide a group of fixed responses
Dichotomous: yes/no, true/false, agree/disagree
Multiple Choice: What sources do you use for writing
term reports? (check all that apply)
 How many hours do you exercise per week (check only

one response)
 How satisfied are you with the quality of canteen ‘A’

food?
Contingency: Determine if the respondent is qualified
to answer a subsequent question)
 Do you use databases available through iGems? (If no,
please move to question 15) *
 Have you participated in DIS orientation? (Yes/No)
If yes, how effective was this briefing? (Very effective,
effective, ineffective …)
Scaling Responses
Likert-type Scale: Each response is assigned a
numeric ranking based on a continuum that
contains predetermined units of measurement
Designed to show a differentiation among
respondents opinions
 How important is …. (very important, important ….)
 How adequate are …. (v. adequate ……..inadequate)
 How frequently do you ... (frequently … infrequently)
Scaling Responses

Semantic Differential Scale: Provides a set

of bipolar adjective pairs
Q. How would you rate performance of the
Income Tax staff?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bad … … … … … … … Good
Unfair … … … … … … … Fair
Harsh … … … … … … … Gentle
 Scaling Responses
Rank-order or Comparative Ranking Scale
Respondents are expected to rank responses
according to their importance/ preference
Should be used carefully as many respondents
face difficulty in understanding/responding
Only use a short list of responses
Q. What sources do you prefer for writing term reports?
Please rank them according to …… (1= most preferred;
7= least preferred)
--- Books
--- Encyclopaedia
--- Friends
--- Internet
--- Journals
--- Lecture notes
--- Personal collection
Question Placement
Opening questions - start with easy non
threatening questions
Sequence - according to the research topic,
logical flow
Sensitive questions - should be asked only
after trust is developed
Difficult questions - more difficult
questions should be asked at the end
Personal Data – age, gender, qualification,
experience
The End
Mapping Survey Questions
Question

Res. Objective 1 Question

Question

Question
Res. Objective 2
Question

Question

Res. Objective 3 Question

Question