UNIT 1

Overview of Computer Communications

and Networking
NETWORK ADDRESSING
• The concept of addressing involves assigning a network node
a unique address that allows other systems (or) devices to
locate it.
• As an example of addressing consider an ETHERNET/IEEE
802.3 address, which consists of 48 bits (8bytes) represented
as 12 hexa decimal digits and portioned into 6 groups of two.
For example 08:00:20:01:D6:2A is a valid Ethernet 802.3
address.
• If the 2nd hexa-decimal (from left) of the destination address is
zero (or) an even digit (2,4,6,8,A,C,E) then the message is
“uni-cast”. If the 2nd hexa-decimal digit is odd then the
message is “multi-cast”.
Types of Network addressing Mode

• Uni-cast addressing Mode

• Broadcast Addressing Mode
• Multi-cast Addressing Mode
Hierarchical Addressing Scheme
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits

NETWORK NETWORK Sub-Network Host

• IPv4 uses hierarchical addressing scheme. An IP
address which is 32 bits in length is divided into 3 or 4
segments.
• A single IP address can contain information about the
network and its sub-network and ultimately the host.
This scheme enables the IP address to be hierarchical
where a network can have many sub-networks which
in-turn can have many hosts.
• Subnet Mask
• The 32 bit IP address contains information about the
host and its network. It is very necessary to distinguish
both. For this routers use subnet mask which is as long
as the size of network address.
• Example
• IP address 192.168.1.152 11000000 10101000 00000001 10011000
• Subnet mask 255.255.255.0 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
• Network address tends to  11000000 10101000 00000001 00000000
192 168 1 0

Network Routing
• When a device has multiple paths to reach a
destination. It always selects one path by preferring it
over other. This selection process is termed as
“Routing”.
• Routing is done by special network devices called
“Routers” or it can be done by means of software
processes. The software based routers have limited
functionality and limited scope.
• In case there are multiple paths existing to
reach the same destination, router can make
decision based on the following parameters:
 Hop Count
 Bandwidth
 Metric
 Prefix-length
 Delay
Types of Network Routing:
 Uni-cast Routing
 Broadcast-Routing
 Multi-Cast Routing
Uni-cast Routing:
• It is the process of forwarding uni-casted
traffic from a source to a destination on an
internetwork.
• A Uni-cast transmission sends IP packets to a
single recipient on a network.
• It is a point to point communication between
sender and receiver.
• There are three major protocols for Uni-cast
routing:
 Distance Vector Routing
 Link State Routing
 Path-Vector Routing
• Link state routing uses link-state routers to
exchange message that allows each user to learn
entire network topology. Based on this learned
topology, each router is then able to compute its
routing table by using shortest path.
• Distance Vector routing uses a distributed
algorithm to compute their routing tables.
• In path vector routing (Dijkstra algorithm is
used) and a calculation is performed on the
database results into shortest path.
Network Reliability:
• Reliability refers to data integrity which has to
do with ensuring that the data received are
identical to data transmitted
• Computer Networks are non trivial systems and are not
infallible. In fact most networks are highly fagile and easily
disrupted. Thus, it is important that they be designed with the
capability to resolve errors.
• Once a destination node has detected an error, it can then do
one of the two things:
 Request re-transmission from the sending node.
 Determine what the correct data should be and change them
accordingly
Both methods are forms of error correction. We call the 1st
one as error correction through re-transmission and second
one as Autonomous error correction.
Autonomous error correction is very expensive to implement.
So, we prefer error correction through re-transmission.
• Interoperability:
 Interoperability refers to the degree in which
products(software & hardware) developed by different
vendors are able to communicate successfully with each other
over a network.
 Network Interoperability is the continuous ability to send and
receive data among the inter connected networks, providing
the quality level expected by the end user without any
negative impact to the sending & receiving networks.
 To achieve interoperability devices can interoperate with each
other either by adhering to a common protocol standard (or)
situating a gateway between them capable of translating each
devices protocol.
Network Security:
 It is the security provided to a network from unauthorized
access and risks. It is the duty of network administrators to
adopt preventive measures to protect their networks from
potential security threats.
 Most common and simple way of protecting a network
resource is by assigning it a unique name and a password.
Types of Network Security Devices:
1. Active Devices These security devices blocks the surplus
traffic. Firewalls, antivirus scanning devices
and content filtering devices are examples.
2. Passive Devices  These security devices identify and report
unwanted traffic
3. Preventive Devices: These devices scan the network and
identify the potential security problems.
For example Penetration testing devices.
4. Unified Threat Management: These are all in one security
devices. Examples include firewalls content filtering, web
caching etc.
Network Standards & Protocols:
 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open
and competitive market for equipment manufactures and in
guaranteeing national & international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and process.
 Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies and other service providers to ensure
the kind of interconnectivity.
• Computer Communication Standards fall into two categories:
1. De-facto
2. De Jure

De-facto: Standards that have been not approved by an

organized body but have been adopted as standards
through wide spread use are named as de-facto
standards.
 These standards are often established originally by
manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new
product (or) technology.

De-Jure: The standards which have been legislated by an officially

recognized body are named as De-Jure
standards.
• In addition to above standards there are some more
standards which are related to specific manners and are
named as:
 Proprietary Standards
 Consortia Standards
 Internet Standards

Standard Organizations:
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. American National Standards Institute(ANSI)
3. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineer(IEEE)
4. Electronics Industries Association (EIA)
PROTOCOL
• Set of rules that govern data communication.
It defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated & when it is communicated.
• Key elements of a protocol are:
1) Syntax Structure or format
2) Semantics How a particular pattern is
interpreted
3) Timing
Characteristics of Data Communication
• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timeliness
• Jitter