Me-439 Ice Lec 4 Si - Ci

School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
(SMME)
Internal Combustion Engines

Course Code ME-439
SI &CI ENGINES
LECTURE 4
Engr Mohammad Ikhlaq Khattak

ikhlaq@smme.nust.edu.pk1
Valve timing diagram
• Internal Combustion
Engines – SI & CI
– Air-Standard and Fuel-Air
cycles
– Performance criteria
– Gas exchange processes
– SI Engine combustion and
performance
– IC engine modeling
– Diesel engine performance
characteristics
– The limited pressure cycle Page 2 of 109
Valve Timing
Valve timing diagram
(2NZ-FE engine without VVT-i, leaded gasoline type)
TDC
Valve overlap Exhaust
Intake valve 2 valve closes
Ex. opens 2 In. Ex.
In.
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Exhaust
valve
43 opens 34 Ex.
In.
In. Ex.
Combustion
(power) stroke
Exhaust stroke
Intake
valve
closes
(1/2)
BDC
Engine cycles
Page 4
Firing Order
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a multi-cylinder
reciprocating engine. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firing_order)
number firing order example

of
cylinders
3 1-2-3 Saab 2-stroke

1-3-2 BMW k75, Suzuki mehran
4 1-3-4-2 Most straight-4s
1-2-4-3 Some British Ford and Riley engines, Ford Kent engine, Riley Nine
1-3-2-4 Subaru 4-cylinder engines, Yamaha R1 crossplane
1-4-3-2 Volkswagen air-cooled engine
6 1-5-3-6-2-4 Mercedes-Benz M104 engine, Volkswagen VR6 engine

1-4-3-6-2-5 Mercedes-Benz M272 engine, Volkswagen V6’s (90-degree V6's)
1-6-5-4-3-2 GM 3800 engine, Rover KV6 engine
1-2-3-4-5-6 General Motors 60° V6 engine, Mazda JE 3.0 litre 60-degree V6 engine,
1-4-2-5-3-6 Ford Cologne V6 engine, Ford Essex V6 engine (UK)
1-6-3-2-5-4 Subaru Alcyone/XT-6/Vortex ER-27 Flat-6
1-6-2-4-3-5 Porsche Boxster Flat-6
1-6-2-5-3-4 Maserati Quattroporte IV V6-4AC-24
Page 5
Air-Standard and Fuel-Air cycles
– In case of the air-standard cycle, the working fluid is
considered to be a perfect gas and all equations governing
perfect gas properties are used.
• Cp and Cv are considered constant whatever the temperature
and pressure of the working fluid
• For SI engines, heat addition is at constant volume, while for
the CI engines, heat addition is at constant pressure
– In case of the fuel-air cycle, the properties of fuel are
included in the analysis of engine cycles.
• The unburned mixture is considered to be frozen in
composition
• The burned gas mixture is considered to be in equilibrium.
• Values for each of these gases are available in charts and
computer programs
Page 6 of 109
Ideal models of engine processes
Process Assumption
Compression (1- 1. Adiabatic and reversible
2) (isentropic)
Combustion (2-3) 1. Adiabatic

2. Combustion at
a. dV=0
b. dP=0
c. dV=0 & dP=0
3. Combustion complete
Expansion (3-4) 1. Adiabatic and reversible

(reversible)
Exhaust (4-5-6) & 1. Adiabatic

Intake (6-7-1) 2. Valve events occur at TDC &
BDC
3. dVcyl=0
4. dPin =0 & dPexh=0
5. Velocity effects negligible
Page 7 of 109
Performance criteria
– Review of operating characteristics of common types
of ICEs
– Influence of basic operating principles on the
performance, emissions and efficiency of real engines
– Provide data and explanation of actual engine
operating characteristics
Page 8 of 109
Power and torque
• Power
P  MEP  Ap  V p 4 4 stroke cycle
P  MEP  Ap  V p 2 2 stroke cycle
• Where Visp the mean piston speed:

V p  S  N  / 30
• Torque is given by:

  MEP Vs 4  4 stroke cycle
  MEP Vs 2  2 stroke cycle
Page 9 of 109
MEP – Mean Effective Pressure
MEP   f  v  QHV   a ,i F A 4 stroke cycle

MEP   f tr  QHV   a ,i F A 2 stroke cycle
• SFC – Specific Fuel Consumption

1
SFC 
 f  Qhv
Page 10 of 109
Operating variables that affect SI engine performance,
efficiency and emissions:
• Spark timing
• Maximum Brake Torque is
maximised with ignition timing
• As seen, 1% variation in MBT for
~10° ignition timing variation
• Emissions depend a lot on ignition
timing – timing is kept retarded
for 1% to 2% reduction in MBT
• Speed increase – timing advanced
• Load increase – timing retarded
Page 11 of 109
• Mixture composition
• For optimal emissions control, need
stoichiometric AFR
• 3-way catalytic convertor needs a
stoichiometric mixture
• To reduce pumping losses, stratified
injection may be used. Problem of
emissions control, combustion.
Necessitating at times multiple
ignition sources
• For maximum power, high flame
speed needed, best power at
equivalence ratio of 1.1
Page 12 of 109
• Mixture composition
Page 13 of 109
Operating variables that affect SI engine
performance, efficiency and emissions:
• Fast burn time:

• Given by Δθb
• Time taken (in seconds or
crank angle degrees) for 90%
combustion of intake air/fuel
charge
Engine type Speed (RPM) t90% (ms)
Passenger car idle 500 17
Passenger car full power 4000 2
F1 car at full N 19000 .4

Page 14 of 109
performance, efficiency and emissions
• Exhaust gas recycling (EGR):
• Rerouting of part of exhaust gases into intake
• Reduces pumping losses
• Reduces NOx production rates by increasing thermal inertia
• HC rates increase
• No appreciable influence on CO production
Page 15 of 109
performance, efficiency and emissions:
• Load and speed:
• Map obtained using fuel consumption measurement
system and dynamometer
• By using mean piston speed and BMEP, the
performance map may be generalised to a great
degree
• Maximum BMEP is somewhere in the middle of the
rev range
• Minimum BSFC is at a slightly lower RPM range than
Max BMEP
• These maps are a translation of ηv, ηf, & ηm
• Max BMEP = Max ηv
• ηm decreases as mean piston speed increases
• ηf increases with mean piston speed as heat transfers
become less significant
Page 16 of 109
• Compression ratio:
• Higher the compression ratio, higher the theoretical ηf
• In real case, combustion stability, heat transfer,
volumetric efficiency, friction also influence efficiency
• Dynamic compression ratio is different than static
compression ratio because valve events, flow
phenomena, change in engine part dimensions etc.
• Compression ratio limited by knock
• Graphic shows 5.3 litre v8 at WOT and 2000 RPM
• ηm remained at 89% and ηv at 82.5%
• BMEP and IMEP rise to 17 then drop
– Increase in S/V ratio
– Formation of crevices in combustion chamber
– Slower combustion
Page 17 of 109
Gas exchange processes
– Examination of flow of air, fuel and exhaust through

an internal combustion engine
– Fundamentals of the intake and exhaust processes for
4 stroke engines
– Fundamentals of scavenging for 2 stroke engines
– Introduction to various fuel delivery systems
Page 18 of 109
Valve flow
• At WOT (Wide-Open Throttle) the most significant resistance to airflow in

an ICE is via the intake and exhaust valves. The mass flow rate through a
valve is given by:
12
 2  P   1 
2
 Pv  
m  c f  o Av co   v     
   1   Po   Po  


Po = upstream stagnation pressure, Pv = valve static pressure (Pcyl for subsonic),
ρo = stagnation density, co = , Av = valve area, cf = flow coefficient

Po    1   1
Flow chokes when Pv   2   1.9 mass flow rate becomes independent of Pv
 
  1
 2  2  1   Po  2  2  1
m ch  c f  o Av co    c f Av  
   1   
R  To    1 
Page 19 of 109
• Valve flow
A1  dl Pv = pressure at A1 or A2
 2
A2  d Pc = cylinder pressure
4
l = valve lift
d = valve diameter
flow coefficient (cf) = effective flow area (Af)
valve seat area (A2)
disch. coefficient (cd) = effective flow area (Af)
valve curtain area (A1)
Page 20 of 109
• Flow coefficient measurement
Set: Av
Measure: mi, Ti, Pi
Calculate: cf
1 2
 1 
m  2   Pv  
2
 Pv  
cf       
 o Av co    1   Po   Po  
  
Page 21 of 109
• Valve sizing
In order to avoid choked flow, the intake valves are sized based on:
U 
p max
Av  1.3B 
2
ci
Where Avis the average valve area, B is the cylinder bore, isUthe
p average
piston velocity at max engine speed, is the speed ci of sound of gas in the intake
port.
Exhaust valves can be smaller since the speed of sound in exhaust gases is
much higher.
Since there is limited space for valves, it is common practice to have multiple
intake and exhaust valves per cylinder.
Page 22 of 109
• Valve sizing
For a flat combustion chamber, valve sizing for 2, 3 & 4 valve head
would be:
Page 23 of 109
• Valve sizing
To increase ratio of Av / Ap (up to 0.5), valves are inclined and the

combustion chamber is hemispherical or wedge shaped:
Page 24 of 109
• Valve sizing
Double OverHead Camshafts are generally used to increase number of

valves per cylinder. It may in some case be done via SingleOHC as well
Page 25 of 109
• Valve opening and closing
In thermodynamic cycles, it is assumed that valves open and close instantaneously.

In reality, a cam is used to progressively open and close the valves, the lobes of
which are profiled to provide smooth motion without acceleration spikes
Page 26 of 109
• Valve overlap
In real engines, to ensure that the valve is fully open during a stroke (and
ensure a ηv), the valves are open for more than 180°
The exhaust valve opens before BDC and closes after TDC
The intake valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC
At TDC there is valve overlap where both intake and exhaust valves are open
TDC BDC BDC TDC BDC Page 27 of 109

• Valve overlap
When the intake valve opens before TDC (BTDC), the cylinder pressure is roughly at P e
Part throttle (Pi<Pe): Residual gases flow into the intake port. Residual gas is first re-introduced
into the cylinder , then fresh charge is added. Performance akin to EGR.
WOT (Pi=Pe): Some fresh air / fuel charge may go out of the exhaust while scavenging residual
gases. Power is increased, along with emissions.
Supercharged (Pi>Pe): Fresh gas can flow out of the exhaust valve during scavenging process.
Page 28 of 109
• Valve timing
@ 1000 RPM intake duration: 230° = 38.4ms

@ 2500 RPM: 230° = 15.4ms
@ 5000 RPM: 230° = 7.7ms, 285° = 9.5ms
Page 29 of 109
• Valve timing
Overlap
15°
65°
At high engine speeds, less time is available for the gas exchange process, hence
greater crank angles allow better exchange – greater VE – larger valve overlap
At low engine speeds and part throttle operation, less overlap is required and
may be reduced by changing the intake valve opening crank angle duration
Variable Valve Timing (VVT) allows timing to be adjusted for engine speed and
load
Variable Valve Lift (VVL) allows increase in valve flow are thus increasing flow
without increasing overlap. Helpful in high RPM / load situations
Page 30 of 109
• Honda Variable valve Timing and Electronic lift
Control (VTEC™)
SOHC. Intake valves have three cam lobes, two that operate the valves at low-RPM, and
a third that takes over at high RPM / load (~2500 – 4500 RPM)
Low RPM – the two rocker arms operate the valves at low lift / duration profiles
High RPM – one centre lobe is locked via a hydraulically activated pin, and the intake
valves are then on a high-lift / duration cam profile.
Page 31 of 109
• Honda Variable valve Timing and Electronic lift
Control (VTEC™)
Low RPM – the two rocker arms High RPM – one centre lobe is
operate the valves at low lift / locked via a hydraulically
duration profiles activated pin, and the intake
valves are then on a high-lift /
duration cam profile.
Page 32 of 109
• Honda Variable valve Timing and Electronic lift Control
(VTEC™)
Stage 1 (low speed): One valve low lift, second medium lift. Increases swirl and air
turbulence – better combustion
Stage 2 (medium speed): Pin 1 locked – both valves medium lift – better VE at medium
speed
Stage 3 (high speed): Pin 2 locked – both valve high lift – best performance for high RPM
Page 33 of 109
• VVT – cam phasing
Shifts phase angle of the camshaft – valve opening and closing happens sooner or later in
the cycle – does not change duration nor lift
Most systems provide a two-step cam phasing (0-30° generally), others, like Toyota
with their VVT-i system provide continuous phasing allowing for smoother
performance
At low speeds – 0° phasing for better low speed performance with low overlap
At high speeds – 30° phasing for better VE and power. Page 34 of 109
• BMW Double VANOS
Double VANOS provides continuous phasing of both intake (40°) and exhaust (25°)
Hydraulic ram allows for phasing of cam by moving in and out –

movement controlled by solenoids and oil pressure from
lubrication system
Page 35 of 109
• BMW Valvetronic
Valvetronic permits variation of valve lift from 0 to 9.7mm – no

need of a throttle butterfly. BMW claim a reduction of 10% of fuel
consumption in normal use.
Page 36 of 109
• BMW Valvetronic
Page 37 of 109
• BMW Valvetronic
Page 38 of 109
• Toyota VVTL
VVTL uses cam phasing and two cam profiles for duration
Low RPM: Long duration cam not engaged, short duration cam in
action
High RPM: Long duration cam engaged by sliding pin (similar to
VTEC) – duration and lift both increased.
Page 39 of 109
• Solenoid actuated valves – Valeo e-Valve
Advantages:
• Full control over valve events
• Opening and closing is rapid
• Cylinder deactivation is possible
• Decrease in pumping losses
• Different engine cycles may be
implemented
Disadvantages
• Bulky and heavy
• Increase in electrical power requirement
• No recovery of spring work as in
traditional valvetrains – limiting efficiency
Page 40 of 109
• Valve float
To keep the valve closed when not acted upon by the cam, a spring is used.
Also used to keep the cam follower in contact with the cam ensuring a
reliable motion of the valve
At very high engine speeds however, it may happen that due to inertia of the
valve, spring retainer and follower, the valve can no longer follow the profile
of the cam. The follower is then no longer in contact with the cam. This
causes the valves to remain open longer than desired and upon closing the
follower slams into the cam lobe, increasing wear and tear
Page 41 of 109
• Intake and Exhaust system for single cylinder engine
Page 42 of 109
Intake and Exhaust manifold for multi-cylinder
engine
The intake manifold is composed of a common chamber (plenum)

which supplies charge to each cylinder via tubes (runners)
The exhaust manifold is composed of multiple pipes, one from each

cylinder that unite at a common point and continue to the tailpipe
Page 43 of 109
• Manifold pressure
3000 RPM 6000 RPM
Fluctuation in pressure is greater at higher RPM since air inertial

effects take greater significance as time scales per cycle get smaller
Page 44 of 109
Volumetric efficiency
By definition, volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of mass of the

air / fuel charge ingested by the engine to the product of swept volume and
density of air at ambient conditions
Pcy l
mch  ch ,cyl Vs ,cyl Tcyl  Vs ,cyl 
v     
 ch ,atm Vs  ch ,atm Vs Patm  Vs 
Tatm
Affected by:
1. Fuel evaporation
2. Mixture temperature
3. Intake pressure drop
4. Gas dynamic effects
5. Valve timing Page 45 of 109
Factors affecting ηv
Fuel evaporation
• It will always be less than 100% for naturally-aspirated SI engines
(no turbo / supercharging). As the injected fuel is sprayed into
the manifold, it evaporates, taking place of the ingested air.
• If fuel is injected earlier, more fuel evaporates and takes space of
the air charge, and thus it reduces the VE
• Direct injection SI and diesel engines tend to have a better VE
since there is no fuel to evaporate and take place of the air
charge
Page 46 of 109
Heat transfer
• Intake systems are heated (either via coolant or via heat transfer
from the engine). This is done on purpose to increase drivability at
low temperature or right after start-up.
• Density of air entering cylinder is thus lower than that for ambient
air
• Effect amplified at low engine speeds since air flow rate is lower and
heat transfer raises temperature
Page 47 of 109
Fluid friction
• Air flows through a duct with bends, changing radii, filter, throttle
valve and intake valve
• Fluid (air) flowing through any duct will experience a pressure drop
• For a naturally aspirated engine, the cylinder pressure is thus always
lower than atmospheric
• Fluid friction is more significant at high flow velocity rates
Page 48 of 109
Fluid friction
Po = atmospheric pressure
ΔPair = pressure loss in the air cleaner
ΔPu = intake losses upstream
ΔPthr = loss across throttle
ΔPvalve = loss across intake valve
WOT
Part throttle
Page 49 of 109
Residual gas
• Space generally taken by air is taken up by residual gas
• Residual gas fraction may be given by
1
f rg  Pe P4 
1

• As Pe/P4 ~ Pe/Pi increases, or ρc decreases, the
c
fraction of
cylinder volume occupied by the residual gas increases and thus
volumetric efficiency decreases
TDC
BDC
Page 50 of 109
Opening intake before BDC on exhaust stroke (overlap)

• The longer the valve overlap, the more the exhaust gases will
rush into the intake manifold at each intake process
• Most problematic at idle (part throttle and lower engine speeds)
– low intake pressure and more time for exhaust gases to back
up into intake
TDC BDC Page 51 of 109

Closing intake after TDC on compression stroke (backflow)

• Due to partial vacuum, mixture continues to flow into the cylinder
even ABDC. As long as ΔP > 0, we can keep valve open
• Best time is to close intake valve when
intake and cylinder pressures are equal
– too late -> backflow; too early ->
insufficient charging
• At high engine speeds, the ΔP
increases, we can wait till much later BDC TDC BDC
than at low engine speed to close the
intake valve (~60° ABDC)
• At low engine speeds, the ΔP
decreases, so we have to close intake
valve earlier than at high speed (~40°
ABDC) Page 52 of 109
Ram effect
• At high engine speeds, as the intake valve closes, the inertia of air in
the intake increases the pressure in the intake port
P  v 2  const
Thus allowing more air to be ingested by the engine
• This effect becomes progressively more significant at higher engine
speeds
• To take advantage of the ram effect, the intake valve is closed ABDC
Page 53 of 109
Intake tuning
• Upon opening of the intake valve, air suddenly rushes into the cylinder.
This causes the generation of an expansion wave which propagates back
into the intake manifold at the local sonic speed
• When the expansion wave reaches the end of the intake runner, it reflects
back to the intake valve as a compression wave. The time taken for the
round trip depends on the length of the runner and the flow velocity
• If the wave is timed correctly, it will arrive back at the intake at the end of
the intake process raising the intake pressure allowing more air charge to
be taken in by 2the
L engine 13 c
t wave  tvalve  L local
clocal N  6N
• For fixed runner lengths, the intake is tuned for one engine speed Page 54 of 109
L ~1 N
Page 55 of 109
In cylinder fluid flow
We can identify three parameters that are used to characterise

large-scale in-cylinder charge motion: swirl, squish and tumble
• Swirl is the rotational motion about the axis of the piston
• It is used to
• Promote rapid combustion in SI
engines
• Promote rapid mixing of air and
fuel in direct injection SI and CI
engines
• Swirl may be generated by
• Tangentially directing air into the
cylinder
• Pre-swirling air flow in the intake
port using helical ports
Page 56 of 109
In cylinder fluid flow
Swirl and its generation
Page 57 of 109
Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
In cylinder fluid flow Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts
Engine swirl
Many engines have a bowl shaped cylinder head – as piston
approaches TDC, the air mass is squeezed into a smaller diameter,
increasing its polar moment of inertia, increasing its swirl speed
Page 58 of 109
Introduction
In cylinder fluid flow Forced Induction
Squish and tumble

• Squish is the radial inflow
of gases at the end of the
compression stroke
• As the piston reaches

TDC the squish generates
a secondary motion in
the form of a torus or
horizontal axis, called the
tumble
Page 59 of 109
Introduction
Factors affecting ηv Forced Induction
As a function of engine speed
Page 60 of 109
SI Engine combustion and performance
• Flame propagation in SI engines
• Propagation of the turbulent flame away from the spark

Page 61 of 109
• Flame development
• Flame development angle – Δθd – crank angle interval for the
development of the flame kernel to develop after ignition by spark
• Rapid burning angle – Δθb – crank angle required to burn most of the
mixture (90%)
• Overall burning angle – sum of development and rapid burning angles
Page 62 of 109
• Mixture burn time vs. engine speed

 90%
The time for overall burn is: t90% 
 min   360 
0
N     
 60 s   rev 
In general, a burn angle is taken to be around 50°

Engine type Speed (RPM) t90% (ms)
Passenger car idle 500 17
Passenger car full power 4000 2
F1 car at full N 19000 .4
Page 63 of 109
• Mixture burn time
The overall burn time is too slow. If the engine is running at high
speeds, the case is even worse
Page 64 of 109
• Mixture burn time vs. engine speed

• Turbulent burning velocity is proportional to turbulence intensity S t ~ ut. The
turbulence intensity increases with the piston speed, u t=1/2.up
• At higher engine speeds, the turbulent flame velocity is higher, thus less time is
needed to burn the mixture
• Combustion duration in crank angles varies between 40 ° and 60° with slight increase
with an increase in engine speed.
Page 65 of 109
• Heat losses during burn
During combustion the ratio of cylinder surface area to volume (S/V) is

very high – heat loss to the cylinders is very significant
In order to reduce the heat loss, we will reduce the burn time by:
– Laminar burning velocity
– Turbulence intensity
The highest laminar burning velocity is achieved for slightly rich
mixtures. For iso-octane the maximum Sl = 26.3cm/s for φ=1.13. Squish
promotes in-cylinder turbulence
Page 66 of 109
• Optimum composition
• Maximum power is usually obtained around φ=1.1. This gives us the
best combustion velocity and hence the least heat loss and the
highest flame temperature (thus pressure)
• Best fuel economy is obtained for a φ < 1.0
Page 67 of 109
• Spark timing
• Spark timing relative to TDC affects the pressure rise and thus IMEP
and power
• Gas should be ignited before TDC in order to have a high cylinder
pressure developed at TDC
Page 68 of 109
• Maximum brake torque timing

• If start of combustion is too early – work is done against the piston which does not
produce any work
• If too late – peak pressure and thus peak torque is reduced
• The spark timing that gives maximum brake torque is called MBT timing
Page 69 of 109
• Effect of engine speed on spark timing

• Overall burn angle increases with engine speed
• To compensate, timing has to be advanced as engine speed increases
Page 70 of 109
• Abnormal combustion in SI engines

• Knock is the general term used to describe a pinging noise that is emitted
by an SI engine if it is undergoing abnormal combustion
• The noise is generated by shock waves produced in the combustion
chamber / cylinder as a result of this abnormal combustion
Page 71 of 109
• Engine damage from knock

• Knocking can quickly damage an engine. Damage is due to a combination of high pressure
and high temperature. Knock at low load may be less damaging than knock at full or high
load conditions.
• Piston ring lands, head gaskets, cylinder heads are usually affected
Page 72 of 109
• Knock visualisation
Page 73 of 109
• Knock
• Flame propagates away from spark plug – gas pressure increases
• Under certain conditions the air/fuel mixture can auto-ignite and burn
rapidly generating shock waves
• The end-gas (air/fuel mixture) burns after a certain induction time which
depends on the chemical kinetics of the air/fuel mixture
• If the flame burns all the air/fuel mixture before autoignition, knock can
be avoided
• Knock is therefore a potential problem if the burn time is long
Page 74 of 109
• Engine parameters affecting knock

• Compression ratio: At high compression ratios, the air / fuel
mixture is compressed to high pressures and temperatures
which promotes autoignition.
• Engine speed: At low engine speeds, the flame velocity is slow,
which gives a longer burn time, increasing the chances of
knock.
On the other hand, at high engine speeds, there is less transfer
o heat to the combustion chamber walls, thus the charge
temperature stays higher. This may promote knock as well.
Both of these effects are competing, it is for this reason that
some engines show a greater propensity to knock at high
engines speeds while others do not
Page 75 of 109

• Throttle position: At part-throttle conditions, the residual gas fraction increases, and being a
diluent, it reduces the burn rate. To compensate for this, spark ignition needs to be advanced
to maximise torque.
At WOT conditions, burn time is short. Also the initial pressure in the cylinder before
compression is high, hence the final pressure is high, this increases the reaction rate of the
air/fuel mixture. Even though the burn time is short, the autoignition effects are stronger and
there is a need to retard ignition timing to avoid knock and correctly phase the combustion
pressure for MBT
• Intake air temperature: A high intake temperature means a high temperature at the end of
compression. If spark ignition timing is not retarded, it may well be that the pressure rise be
too abrupt and either
– Peak pressure arrives before TDC, reducing torque
– Pressure and temperature rise are too abrupt causing knock
In either case, an increase in intake air temperature demands a retardation of spark

ignition timing
Page 76 of 109

• Spark timing: By increasing the ignition advance, we make the
end of the combustion approach TDC. We get progressively
higher temperatures and pressures which may cause knock
Page 77 of 109
• Knock control using spark advance
• Modern engine control systems can set ignition timing advance

according to engine speed and load. Load may be measured by
throttle position, manifold pressure or air mass flow. Page 78 of 109
• Engine knock detection

• A knock sensor is mounted on the engine block to determine if the engine is knocking
• Consists of a piezoelectric accelerometer that produces an analog electrical signal
• Signal is filtered and amplified by the ECU to determine if knock is occurring
• In-cylinder pressure sensors are prohibitively expensive and fragile for use on
production vehicles and are hence not used
• At the onset of knock, the ECU retards spark timing by a certain number of degrees
before re-increasing advance every few cycles
• Correction for fuel quality and fuel type is sometimes performed via knock sensing
Page 79 of 109
Page 80 of 109
Generally a 1st order and 3rd or 4th order knock signal are taken for reliability as
1st order knock signal has noise from other engine components. The higher-
Page 81 of 109
order signal is taken and amplified
• Octane number measurement

Two methods have been developed to measure octane number on a
standardised single cylinder engine as defined by the Cooperative Fuel
research committee in 1931
The engine is a 4 stroke engine with a variable compression ratio of
between 3 and 30. bore is of 3.25” and stroke is of 4.5”
Research Motor
Inlet temperature (°C) 52 149
Engine speed (RPM) 600 900
Spark ignition advance (°BTDC) 13 19-26
Coolant temperature (°C) 100
Inlet pressure (atm) 1.0
Humidity (kg water / kg dry air) 0.0036-0.0072
Page 82 of 109
• Octane number measurement

Testing procedure
• Run the engine on both testing conditions using the test fuel
• Increase the compression ratio while monitoring knock until a standard value is achieved
• Run the engine at that compression ration while running different blends of n-heptane
and iso-octane
• The ON is the proportion in % of volume of iso-octane to n-heptane replicating the same
knock at the same compression ratio
The antiknock index used in the US is the average of RON and MON
Europe and Japan uses RON as their antiknock index. MON is always lower than
RON owing to the harsher operating conditions
Manufacturers define minimum ON ratings for their engines to cater to a wide
variety of load and speed conditions
Page 83 of 109
• Knock characteristics of various fuels
For fuels with better antiknock properties than iso-octane, the

octane n umber is defined as

ON  100  28.28T 1.0  0.736T  1.0  1.427T  0.035216T 2 
12

Where T is millilitres of TEL (Tetra Ethyl Lead) per U.S. Gallon
Page 84 of 109
CI Engine combustion and performance
• Combustion in CI engine
In a CI engine, fuel is
sprayed directly into
the cylinder. The
vapourised part of the
fuel jet reacts with the
hot air and combusts
Photos are taken in a

RCM (Rapid
Compression Machine)
with swirl
Page 85 of 109
• In-cylinder measurements
In this graph we see the injection rate, cylinder pressure and net Rate Of
Heat Release (ROHR)
Page 86 of 109
• Stages of combustion in CI engines
Page 87 of 109
• Stages of combustion in CI engine

The combustion in a CI engine comprises the following stages
Ignition delay (ab) – Fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber, mixes with the swirling air, atomizes and vapourises in the
high-pressure and high-temperature air
Premixed combustion (bc) – combustion of the fuel which has
already mixed with the injected fuel vapour. Combustion is rapid (a
few degrees CA) and governed by local conditions
Mixing controlled combustion (cd) – combustion is governed by local
conditions and fuel injection rate. A quasi-stabilised flame is
established and continues till the end of injection
Late combustion (de) – heat release continues late into the expansion
stroke. Leftover fuel and soot are burned during this phase.
Page 88 of 109
• Types of CI engines
Direct injection – Fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber. The
combustion chamber is composed of the piston crown and the cylinder head
Indirect injection – The combustion chamber is divided into two regions. The
first is the main combustion chamber similar to the DI CI engine. The second is a
pre-combustion chamber that receives the injected fuel and communicates with
the main combustion chamber via a duct or orifices
• For very large engines, the time available for mixing is long, hence a
quiescent combustion chamber is used with direct injection
• For smaller engines, increasing amounts of swirl is used to decrease mixing
time. This is necessitated by the decreasing length of time available for
mixing and combustion
• For small high-speed engines, a pre-combustion chamber is used which
increases swirl, and thus mixing even at low engine speeds. After injection,
the fuel and exhaust products blow into the main combustion chamber
Page 89 of 109
Page 90 of 109
Direct injection Direct injection Direct injection Indirect injection

quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chqmber
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber
Page 91 of 109
• Combustion characteristic
Shadow
graph
Backlit
photo
Start of combustion depends on the local conditions in the No combustion

combustion chamber
Most of the combustion happens in the head of the fuel jet Page 92 of 109
– rich – sooty
• Ignition delay
The time or delay in CA from the onset of injection to combustion is called the
ignition delay
Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a significant
fraction of the fuel chemical energy is released:
Physical processes – include fuel spray atomization, evaporation and mixing
of fuel vapour with cylinder air.
• Good atomization requires high fuel pressure, small injector hole diameter,
optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large divergence angle)
• Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet diameter,
velocity, fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of the air charge
Chemical processes – similar to that described for autoignition phenomenon
in premixed fuel-air, only more complex since heterogeneous reactions
(reactions occurring on the liquid fuel drop surface) also occur.
Page 93 of 109
• Fuel ignition quality

Properties of fuel have a big impact on ID
The ignition quality of fuel is defined by its Cetane Number (CN)
For low cetane values the flame ignites later, thus the ignition delay is longer, the
premixed combustion is greater, noise is greater and in severe cases, may cause diesel
knock
For high cetane values, the flame ignites earlier, ignition delay is shorter, the premixed
combustion is smaller, which give less noise and smoother operation
Page 94 of 109
• Cetane number
Process similar to ON rating determination
Use isocetane and cetane as reference fuels
Isocetane (HeptoMethylNonane HMN, C6H34) is assigned a CN of
15 and cetane (n-hexadecane, C6H34) a value of 100
CN is given by:
CN = (% cetane) + 0.15 (% isocetane)
1-methylnaphthalene (C11H10) was formerly used with a CN of
zero, but has been abandoned for HMN due to its greater
stability
Page 95 of 109
• Cetane number measurement

Uses a standardised single cylinder engine with a variable compression
ratio
Operating conditions are:
Research
Inlet temperature (°C) 65.6
Engine speed (RPM) 900
Spark ignition advance (°BTDC) 13
Coolant temperature (°C) 100
Injection pressure MPa (atm) 10.3
The test is run with the test fuel and compression raio is varied till there is
combustion at TDC – ID of 13°
The test is reproduced with a blend of isocetane and cetane. The blend that
gives a 13° ID with the same compression ratio is used to calculate the CN
Page 96 of 109
• Cetane number versus Octane number
ON and CN are inversely

correlated, so diesel makes
a poor substitute for petrol
and vice-versa
Page 97 of 109
• Factors affecting ID time

Injection timing – at normal operating conditions the minimum delay occurs
with the start of injection at around 10-15° BTDC. Earlier or later injection
happens in lower temperature and pressures, thus the ID time lengthens
Load – For a CI engine the air is not throttled thus the load or torque
production changes with fuel quantity injected
Increasing the load increases the residual gas and wall temperatures, reducing
the ID
Intake air temperature and pressure – an increase in the air temperature will
result in a decrease in ID by increasing evaporation and reaction rate, while
the increase in intake pressure increases the mass of air, thus oxygen, and
more fluid density increasing mixing and favourising combustion. An increase
in compression ratio reduces ID as well. It may be reduced via artificial heating
as well – glow plugs, EGR, coolant temperature etc.
Page 98 of 109
• Factors affecting ID time
Page 99 of 109
• Multiple injection
Piezo electric injection multi injection – possibility of fast
opening of injectors allow for more injection events per cycle.
Helped by high injection pressures as well
Pilot injection – decreases main injection ID by increasing initial
temperature and pressure. Reduction in noise and production of
NOx.
Post injection – increases exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) to
help in heating and regeneration of exhaust catalysers and
particulate filters
Page 100 of 109

IC engine modeling
– Stepwise simulation of thermodynamic cycle
– Inclusion of physical effects on the engine
thermodynamic cycle
– Calculation of gas properties during different phases
of the engine operation cycle
– Inclusion of combustion effects – spark ignition or
compression ignition – variation of composition and
specific heat values
– Plotting and presentation of results
Page 101 of 109

IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
– Definition
• Initial conditions
Pressure, Temperature, AFR
IC engine modeling
• Definition of engine parameters
Engine size, Speed, Fuel characteristics, Combustion
parameters
• Model parameters
Hohenberg constants, Wiebe constants
Page 102 of 109

IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
– Pre-calculation of operating parametres
• Heat injection function
Using Wiebe’s law – calculated and stored as array for use after SOI
until EOI
• Volume function
Calculation of volume and differential of volume with respect to
crank angle
• Couple arm
Calculation of couple arm created by crank as a function of crank
angle
• Air mass
Calculation of air mass using basic gas laws, and initial conditions
• Fuel injection
Calculation of fuel mass injection for external and internal injection
Page 103 of 109
IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
– Calculation of operating parametres
• Definition of calculation interval – 720° CA
• Baseline of Temperature, Pressure and Specific heat for
the full interval
• Definition of gas properties per calculation step
• Composition of gas per calculation step (addition of fuel
for example)
• Calculation of gas temperature and pressure
• Calculation of heat transfers
• Calculation of indicated torque
Page 104 of 109
IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
• Calculation of gas temperature
Q  U  P  V
dV
dQ  mmix  Cv  dT  mmix  R  T 
V
dQ R  T dV
dT   
mmix  Cv Cv V
• Or, translating the above for use in a computer

program: dQ R  T dV
T  d  T   
mmix    Cv   Cv   V
Page 105 of 109
IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
• Calculation of heat transfers

Qloss    hloss   Acylinder   Tg    Tw 
• Where:

Acylinder    S piston     B   B2
2
hloss    130  V  0.06
 P  T  U piston  1.4
0.8  0.4 0.8
Page 106 of 109

IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
• Calculation of gas pressure
mmix  R  T
P
V
Page 107 of 109

IC engine modeling
• Steps involved
– Display
• Cylinder pressure
• Cylinder gas bulk temperature
• Heat injection
• Indicated instantaneous torque
• P-V diagram
Page 108 of 109

Thank you
Page 109 of 109

Me-439 Ice Lec 4 Si - Ci

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School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Internal Combustion Engines

Engr Mohammad Ikhlaq Khattak

number firing order example

3 1-2-3 Saab 2-stroke

6 1-5-3-6-2-4 Mercedes-Benz M104 engine, Volkswagen VR6 engine

Combustion (2-3) 1. Adiabatic

Expansion (3-4) 1. Adiabatic and reversible

Exhaust (4-5-6) & 1. Adiabatic

P  MEP  Ap  V p 2 2 stroke cycle

• Where Visp the mean piston speed:

• Torque is given by:

MEP   f  v  QHV   a ,i F A 4 stroke cycle

• SFC – Specific Fuel Consumption

• Fast burn time:

Passenger car idle 500 17

Passenger car full power 4000 2

F1 car at full N 19000 .4

– Examination of flow of air, fuel and exhaust through

• At WOT (Wide-Open Throttle) the most significant resistance to airflow in

To increase ratio of Av / Ap (up to 0.5), valves are inclined and the

Double OverHead Camshafts are generally used to increase number of

In thermodynamic cycles, it is assumed that valves open and close instantaneously.

TDC BDC BDC TDC BDC Page 27 of 109

@ 1000 RPM intake duration: 230° = 38.4ms

Hydraulic ram allows for phasing of cam by moving in and out –

Valvetronic permits variation of valve lift from 0 to 9.7mm – no

The intake manifold is composed of a common chamber (plenum)

The exhaust manifold is composed of multiple pipes, one from each

3000 RPM 6000 RPM

Fluctuation in pressure is greater at higher RPM since air inertial

By definition, volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of mass of the

Opening intake before BDC on exhaust stroke (overlap)

TDC BDC Page 51 of 109

Closing intake after TDC on compression stroke (backflow)

We can identify three parameters that are used to characterise

Swirl and its generation

Squish and tumble

• As the piston reaches

As a function of engine speed

• Flame propagation in SI engines

• Propagation of the turbulent flame away from the spark

• Mixture burn time vs. engine speed

In general, a burn angle is taken to be around 50°

Passenger car idle 500 17

Passenger car full power 4000 2

F1 car at full N 19000 .4

• Mixture burn time

• Mixture burn time vs. engine speed

During combustion the ratio of cylinder surface area to volume (S/V) is

• Maximum brake torque timing

• Effect of engine speed on spark timing

• Abnormal combustion in SI engines

• Engine damage from knock

• Engine parameters affecting knock

• Engine parameters affecting knock

In either case, an increase in intake air temperature demands a retardation of spark

• Engine parameters affecting knock

• Knock control using spark advance

• Modern engine control systems can set ignition timing advance

• Engine knock detection

• Engine knock detection

• Engine knock detection