School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

(SMME)

Internal Combustion Engines

Course Code ME-439

FRICTION
SI &CI ENGINES
LECTURE 6
Engr Mohammad Ikhlaq Khattak
ikhlaq@smme.nust.edu.pk1
 FRICTION
SI &CI ENGINES

• Mechanical Friction and Lubrication

• Engine Friction

• Forces on Piston

• Engine Lubrication Systems

• Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

• Lubricating Oil

• Oil Filters
 Mechanical Friction and
Lubrication

When two solid surfaces are in contact in an engine, they will touch each other at the roughness
high spots of the surfaces
The smoother the surfaces are machined (on a macroscopic level), the lower will be the surface
high points (microscopic) and the less will be the average distance separating them.
If one surface is moved relative to the other, the high points will come into contact and will resist
motion (friction)
Points of contact will become hot, sometimes to the point of trying to weld together.

Motion between engine components, highly magnified to show surface roughness.

(a) Dry or non-lubricated surface showing friction caused by high spots.
(b) Lubricated surface showing reduction of friction by hydraulic floating.
Engine Friction
Engine Friction
Regions
 Engine Friction Cycle

It can be seen that, there is even a small

measurable friction force at TDC and BDC
where the piston velocity is considered zero.
This shows that there are deflections in the
connecting components and stretching or
compression of the piston occurring at these
points due to mass inertia and high
acceleration rates. This is the reason the
maximum allowable average piston speed is
about 5 to 15 m/sec for all engines regardless
of size.
Any value higher than that would be a danger
of structural failure, with too small of a safety
margin for the materials in the
piston assemblies of most engines (i.e., iron
and aluminum).
 Engine Friction
Sources
The magnitude of the friction forces is about the same for the intake, compression, and exhaust
strokes.
It is much higher during the expansion stroke, reflecting the higher pressure and forces that
occur at that time. The piston assemblies of most engines contribute about half of the total
friction and can contribute as much as 75% at light loads.
The piston rings alone contribute about 20% of total friction.
Most pistons have two compression rings and one or two oil rings. The second compression ring
reduces the pressure differential that occurs across the first compression ring during combustion
and power stroke.
To reduce friction, the trend has been to make compression rings thinner, some engines having
rings as thin as 1 mm. Oil rings distribute and remove an oil film on the cylinder walls and
sustain no pressure differential.
All rings are spring loaded against the walls, which results in high friction forces.
Adding an additional compression ring can add about 10 kPa to fmep of an engine. Increasing
the compression ratio by one will increase fmep by about 10 kPa. Increasing the compression
ratio also requires heavier bearings on the crankshaft and connecting rods and may require an
additional piston compression ring.
The valve train of an engine contributes about 25% of total friction, crankshaft bearings about
10% of total, and engine-driven accessories about 15% of total.
 Auxiliary Sources
There are many engine and automobile accessories powered off the crankshaft which reduce
the brake power output of the engine.
Some of these are continuous (fuel pump, oil pump, supercharger, engine fan),
and some operate only part of the time (power brake pump, air conditioner compressor,
emission control air pump, power steering pump).
When an engine is motored to measure friction, it has been found that three essential
accessories (water pump, fuel pump, and alternator) can account for as much as 20% of total
friction power.
The fuel pump and water pump on many older engines were driven mechanically off the
crankshaft. Most modern engines have electric fuel pumps and some have electric water pumps.
The power to drive these comes from the alternator, which in turn is driven off the engine
crankshaft.
Most engines have a cooling fan that draws external air through the radiator and blows it
through the engine compartment. Many are powered by direct mechanical linkage to the
crankshaft. As engine speed goes up, fan speed also goes up. Power needed to drive an air fan
goes up as fan speed cubed, so power requirements can get high at higher engine speeds.
Higher engine speeds often mean higher automobile velocity, which is when fan cooling is not
necessary.
 Basic types of oil distribution systems
There are three basic types of oil distribution systems used in engines: splash,
pressurized, or a combination of these.
The crankcase is used as the oil sump (reservoir) in a splash system, and the crankshaft
rotating at high speed in the oil distributes it to the various moving parts by splash; no
oil pump is used. All components, including the valve train and camshaft, must be
open to the crankcase. Oil is splashed into the cylinders behind the pistons and onto
the back of the piston crowns, acting both as a lubricant and a coolant. (lawn mowers,
golf carts, etc.)

An engine with a pressurized oil distribution system uses an oil pump to supply
lubrication to the moving parts through passages built into the components .

In addition, oil is sprayed under pressure onto the cylinder walls and onto the back of
the piston crowns.

Most automobiles actually use dual distribution systems, relying on splash within the
crankcase in addition to the pressurized flow from the oil pump.
A time of excess wear is at engine startup before the oil pump can distribute proper
lubrication. It takes a few engine cycles before the flow of oil is fully established, and
during this time, many parts are not properly lubricated.

Cold oil has much higher viscosity, which further delays proper circulation.

A few engines have oil preheaters which electrically heat the oil before startup.

Some engines have pre-oilers that heat and circulate the oil before engine startup. An
electric pump lubricates all components by distributing oil throughout the engine.

It is recommended that turbocharged engines be allowed to idle for a few seconds

before they are turned off.
 Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

Many small engines and some experimental two-stroke cycle automobile engines use
the crankcase as a compressor for the inlet air.

In these engines, oil is carried into the engine with the inlet air in much the same way
as the fuel. When the fuel is added to the inlet air, usually with a carburetor, oil
particles as well as fuel particles are distributed into the flow. The air flow then enters
the crankcase, where it is compressed.

Oil particles carried with the air lubricate the surfaces they come in contact with, first
in the crankcase and then in the intake runner and cylinder.

Fuel-to-oil ratio ranges from 30:1 to 400:1, depending on the engine. Some modern
high-performance engines have controls which regulate the fuel-oil ratio, depending on
engine speed and load.
.
 Lubricating Oil

The oil used in an engine must serve as a lubricant, a coolant, and a vehicle for removing
impurities. It must be able to withstand high temperatures without breaking down and must
have a long working life.

Just a couple of decades back, the tolerances between pistons and cylinder walls was such that
engines burned some oil that seeped past the pistons from the crankcase. This required a
periodic need to add oil and a frequent oil change due to blow-by contamination of the
remaining oil. HC levels in the exhaust were high because of the oil in the combustion chamber.
A rule in the 1950s and 1960s was to have an oil change in an automobile every 1000 miles.

Modern engines run hotter, have closer tolerances which keep oil consumption down, and have
smaller oil sumps due to space limitations. They generate more power with smaller engines by
running faster and with higher compression ratios. This means higher forces and a greater need
for good lubrication.
At the same time, many manufacturers now suggest changing the oil every 6000 miles.
 Lubricating Oil

Lubricating oils are generally rated using a viscosity scale established by the Society of
Automotive Engineering (SAE). Dynamic viscosity is defined from the equation:
(11-13)
where: Ts = shear force per unit area
= dynamic viscosity
(dUjdy) = velocity gradient

The higher the viscosity value, the greater is the force needed to move adjacent surfaces or to
pump oil through a passage. Viscosity is highly dependent on temperature, increasing with
decreasing temperature . In the temperature range of engine operation, the dynamic viscosity of
the oil can change by more than an order of magnitude.
Oil viscosity also changes with shear, duj dy, decreasing with increasing shear.
Shear rates within an engine range from very low values to extremely high values in the bearings
and between piston and cylinder walls. The change of viscosity over these extremes can be
several orders of magnitude. Common viscosity grades used in engines are:
• SAE 5
• SAE 10
• SAE 20
• SAE 30
 Lubricating Oil
The oils with lower numbers are less viscous and are
used in cold-weather operation.

Those with higher numbers are more viscous and are

used in modern high-temperature, high-speed, close-
tolerance engines.

If oil viscosity is too high, more work is required to pump

it and to shear it between moving parts. This results in
greater friction work and reduced brake work and power
output.
Fuel consumption can be increased by as much as 15%.
Starting a cold engine lubricated with high-viscosity oil is
very difficult (e.g., an automobile at -20°C).
Multi-grade oil was developed so that viscosity would be
more constant over the operating temperature range of
an engine.
 Lubricating Oil

These oils have low-number viscosity values when

they are cold and higher numbers when they are
hot. A value such as SAE 10W-30 means that the oil
has properties of 10 viscosity when it is cold (W =
winter) and 30 viscosity when it is hot.
At cold temperatures SAE 5 oil lubricates better
than SAE 5W-30, and at high temperatures SAE 30
oil lubricates better.
However, if SAE 30 oil is used, starting a cold engine
will be very difficult, and poor lubrication and very
high wear will result before the engine warms up.

Common oils available include:

SAE 5W-20 SAE 10W-40
SAE 5W-30 SAE 10W-50
SAE 5W-40 SAE 15W-40
SAE 5W-50 SAE 15W-50
SAE 10W-30 SAE 20W-50
 Synthetic Oils

A number of synthetically made oils are available that give better performance than those made
from crude oil.

They are better at reducing friction and engine wear, have good detergency properties which
keep the engine cleaner, offer less resistance for moving parts, and require less pumping power
for distribution.

With good thermal properties, they provide better engine cooling and less variation in viscosity.
Because of this, they contribute to better cold-weather starting and can reduce fuel
consumption by as much as 15%.

These oils cost several times as much as those made from crude oil. However, they can be used
longer in an engine, with 24,000 km (15,000 miles) being the oil change period suggested by
most manufacturers.
 Oil Filters

Included in most pressurized oil systems is a filtration system to remove impurities

from the engine oil.

One of the duties of engine oil is to clean the engine by carrying contaminant
impurities in suspension as it circulates.

As the oil passes through filters that are part of the flow passage system these
impurities are removed, cleaning the oil and allowing it to be used for a greater length
of time.

Dust and other impurities are carried by the incoming air. Some, but not all, of these
are removed by an air filter.

Fuels have trace amounts of impurities like sulfur, which create contaminants during
the combustion process. Even pure fuel components form some contaminants, like
solid carbon in some engines under some conditions.

Ideally, most of the contaminants are trapped in the oil, which then contains dust,
Flow passages in a filter are not all the same size but usually exist in a
normal bell-shaped size distribution.
This means that most larger particles will be filtered out as the oil
passes through the filter, but a few as large as the largest passages will
get through.
The choice of filter pore size is a compromise.
Better filtration will be obtained with smaller filter pores, but this
requires a much greater flow pressure to push the oil through the filter.

This also results in the filter becoming clogged quicker and requiring
earlier filter cartridge change.
• https://youtu.be/mmmcj53TNic
https://youtu.be/mmmcj53TNic
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 Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Thanks

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