Mechanics of Machining

Process
Part-1
 How Chips are
formed
• As the cutting tool engages
the workpiece, the material
directly ahead of the tool is
sheared and deformed
under tremendous pressure
• This deformation can be
visualized as shearing. That
is when a metal is
subjected to a load
exceeding its elastic limit.
Continuous Chip

• Formed while
machining ductile
materials
• Eg Wrought iron,
mild steel, Cu, Al
• High Speed, Low feed
rate, Low depth of
cut, Less friction and
ductile job are
favourable conditions
 Continuous
chip with BuE
• At low cutting speed, friction
between the tool and chip is so
high thet the chip gets welded to
the tool face
• This layer builds up more friction,
and that leads to building up of
layer upon layer
• This pile of material is called as
BuE
• With time, BuE becomes large and
unstable, and breaks down
• Broken pieces of BuE gets carried
away from the underside of the
chip and the finished surface
• Affects surface finish Favorable conditions are High friction, Low rake angle,
Low speed, High feed rate, High depth of cut
 Discontinuous
chip
• Happens with brittle
workpiece
• Fracture occurs in the
primary deformation zone
even before the chip is fully
formed
• Formed with brass, bronze
and CI
• Favorable conditions are
Hard and brittle job, Low
speed, High feed rate, High
depth of cut, Low rake angle,
High friction
 Tool Nomenclature
There are three different types of coordinate system that are popular,
when it comes to tool nomenclature, they are

a) Machine Reference System ( MRS)

b) Orthogonal tool Reference System (ORS)
c) Oblique or Normal tool Reference System (NRS)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHEYrGrvp6U
 Machine
Reference
System – MRS

This system is also called ASA

system; ASA stands for American
Standards Association.
• The planes of reference and the
coordinates used in ASA system for
tool geometry are : πR - πX - πY and
Xm – Ym – Zm
• πR = Reference plane; plane
perpendicular to the velocity vector
• πX = Machine longitudinal plane; plane
perpendicular to πR and taken in the
direction of assumed longitudinal feed
• πY = Machine Transverse plane; plane
perpendicular to both πR and πX [This
plane is taken in the direction of
assumed cross feed]
• The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the
direction of longitudinal feed, cross
feed and cutting velocity (vector)
respectively.
• γx = side (axial rake: angle of inclination of the Definitions
rake surface from the reference plane (πR)
and measured on Machine Ref. Plane, πX.
• γy = back rake: angle of inclination of the rake
surface from the reference plane and
measured on Machine Transverse plane, πY.
• αx = side clearance: angle of inclination of the
principal flank from the machined surface (or
C V ) and measured on πX plane.
• αy = back clearance: same as αx but measured
on πY plane
• φs = approach angle: angle between the
principal cutting edge (its projection on πR)
and πY and measured on πR
• φe = end cutting edge angle: angle between
the end cutting edge (its projection on πR)
from πX and measured on πR
Summary
 Orthogonal Tool reference system – ORS

• Generally referred to as ORS (orthogonal rake system). This system is

also known as ISO (International standard organization) – old
• The principal or tool reference plane πR , which is the same as for the
machine reference plane
• The cutting plane πC , which contains the cutting edge, normal to πR
plane
• The orthogonal plane πo , perpendicular to the cutting edge, and
normal to πR plane
TR
S
 • πR = Reference plane perpendicular to the
cutting velocity vector, C V
• πC = cutting plane; plane perpendicular to πR
and taken along the principal cutting edge
• πO = Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to
Definitions both πR and πC and the axes;
• Xo = along the line of intersection of πR and πO
• Yo = along the line of intersection of πR and πC
• Zo = along the velocity vector, i.e., normal to
both Xo and Yo axes.
Rake angles in ORS
• γo = orthogonal rake: angle of
inclination of the rake surface
from Reference plane, πR and
measured on the orthogonal
plane, πo
• λ = inclination angle; angle of
inclination of PCE from the πR
plane and measured on πC
Clearance angles
αo = orthogonal clearance of
the principal flank: angle of
inclination of the principal flank
from πC and measured on πo
Clearance angles

• αo’ = auxiliary
orthogonal clearance:
angle of inclination of
the auxiliary flank
from auxiliary cutting
plane, πC’ and
measured on auxiliary
orthogonal plane, πo’
Cutting angles
• φ = principal cutting edge
angle: angle between πC and
the direction of assumed
longitudinal feed or πX and
measured on πR
• φ1 = auxiliary cutting angle:
angle between πC’ and πX
and measured on πR
Importance of reference plane

In this configuration, rake angle = 0 and

relief angle has increased. Not desirable
 Normal Rake System (NRS) or ISO New System

• Unlike ASA and ORS systems of tool designation where all three
planes of reference are mutually perpendicular, in NRS system three
planes of reference may not be mutually perpendicular.

• They will become mutually perpendicular only when the cutting tool
has zero inclination angle (λ). In such case, NRS system and ORS
system will become same.
 Planes in NRS

• Reference Plane (πR)—It is a plane perpendicular to the cutting

velocity vector (Vc).
• Cutting Plane (πC)—It is a plane perpendicular to reference plane (πR)
and contains the principal cutting edge of the tool.
• Normal Plane (πN)—It is a plane perpendicular to the principal cutting
edge of the tool. Normal plane may not be perpendicular to the
reference plane (πR) and Cutting Plane (πC). However, normal plane is
always perpendicular to the principal cutting edge.
 •Normal Rake Angle (γN)—
•It is the angle of orientation of tool’s rake surface from the reference plane (π R) and measured on normal plane
(πN).
•Inclination Angle (λ)—
It is the angle of inclination of tool’s principal cutting edge from the reference plane (π R) and measured on
cutting plane (πC).
•Normal Clearance Angle (αN)—
•It is the angle of orientation of tool’s principal flank surface from the cutting plane (π C) and measured on normal
plane (πN).
•Auxiliary Normal Clearance Angle (αN’)—
•It is the angle of orientation of tool’s auxiliary flank surface from the auxiliary cutting plane (π C’) and measured
on auxiliary normal plane (πN’).
•Principal Cutting Edge Angle (Φ)—
•It is the angle between cutting plane (πC) (which contains principal cutting edge) and the longitudinal feed
direction, measured on reference plane (πR).
•Auxiliary Cutting Edge Angle (Φ1)—
•It is the angle between auxiliary cutting plane (πC’) (which contains auxiliary cutting edge) and the longitudinal
feed line, measured on reference plane (πR).
Summary
 Conversion of ASA to
ORS
• T = thickness of the tool
• The rake surface, when
extended along πX plane, meets
the tool’s bottom surface
(which is parallel to πR) at point
D’ i.e. D in the plan view
• The same tool rake surface is
extended along πY, it meets the
tool’s bottom surface at point B’
i.e., at B in plan view
 Conversion of ASA to
ORS
• Therefore, the straight line
obtained by joining B and D is
nothing but the line of
intersection of the rake surface
with the tool’s bottom surface
(bottom surface is parallel to
πR)
• So, if the rake surface is
extended in any direction, its
meeting point with the tool’s
bottom plane must be situated
on the line of intersection, i.e.,
BD
Conversion of ASA to
ORS
• Thus the points C and A (in
plan view) obtained by
extending the rake surface
along πo and πC respectively
upto the tool’s bottom surface,
will be situated on that line of
intersection, BD.
• Thus the line joining the
intersection of rake surfaces
with the ground is “Master
line of the rake surface”
Conversion of ASA to
ORS
• Tanλ = T/OA’
• Tanνx = T/OD’
• tan νy = T/OB’
• tanν0 = T/OC’
• Assuming, T=1.0
• OA = cot λ
• OD = cot νx
• OB = cot νy
• OC = cot ν0
Conversion of
ASA to ORS
• Consider triangle OBD,
ΔOBD = ΔOBC + ΔOCD
½ OB.OD = ½ OB.CE + ½ OD. CF
= ½ OB. OC sinφ + ½ OD. OC sin(90-
φ)
=½ OB. OC sinφ + ½ OD. OC cosφ
Divide by ½ OB. OC.OD
1/OC = (1/OD) sinφ + (1/OB) cosφ
tan ν0 = tan νx sin φ + tan νy cos φ
Conversion of
ASA to ORS
• Consider triangle OBD,
Δ OAD = Δ OAB + Δ OBD
½ OD.AG = ½ OB.OG + ½ OD. OB
where,
AG = OAsinφ and OG = OAcosφ
Now,
dividing both sides by ½ OA.OB.OD
(1/OB) sinφ = (1/OD) cosφ + (1/OA)
tan λ = -tan νx cos φ + tan νy sin φ
Conversion
Example-1
Solution
Example-2
Solution
Conversion of clearance angles from ASA system to ORS and
vice versa by Graphical method
• OD = Ttanαx
• OB = Ttanαy
• OC = Ttanαo
• OA = Tcotλ
Summary
ORS to NRS (Ignore the derivation)
Insert Nomenclature
 Example
• A – Parallelogram 85°;
• B – Parallelogram 82°;
There are 16 standard
• C – Diamond 80° (Rhombic); shapes of indexable
• D – Diamond 55° (Rhombic); inserts, and each
• E – Diamond 75° (Rhombic); shape is identified by a
• H – Hexagon 120°; capital letter
• K – Parallelogram 55°;
• L – Rectangle 90°;
• M – Diamond 86° (Rhombic);
• O – Octagon 135°;
• P – Pentagon 108°;
• R – Round;
• S – Square 90°;
• T – Triangle 60°;
• V – Diamond 35° (Rhombic);
• W – Trigon 80°.
Example
Clearances (relief angles)
Nine relief angle values have been
described
• A – 3°;
• B – 5°;
• C – 7°;
• D – 15°;
• E – 20°;
• F – 25°;
• G – 30°;
• N – 0°;
• and P – 11°
Example
• Tolerances on dimensions (±
from nominal) are denoted by
letters A, B and T. Dimension A
is the nominal inscribed circle
(I.C.) of the insert. Dimension T
is the thickness of the insert.
For pentagon, triangle and
trigon shapes, dimension B is
the insert height, i.e., the
distance between one side and
the opposite corner. For all
others, B is the distance,
measured along the bisector of
the rounded off corner angle
• For ex, if a tolerance letter is H,
tolerances on dimensions (±
from nominal) are: 0.013 on
dimension A, 0.013 on
dimension B and 0.025 on
dimension T
• It shows differences in design of insert, such as the
existence of fixing holes, countersinks and special
features on rake surfaces, presence of chip breakers
The fifth position is a
significant one- or two-digit
number indicating the size of
the inscribed circle (I.C.)
• The sixth position is a significant one- or
two-digit number indicating the thickness
of the insert.
• The seventh position indicates nose
radius
• The eighth position is a capital letter
that defines edge treatment and
surface finish as follows:
• A – Honed from 0.0005 to less than
0.003 inch
• B – Honed from 0.003 to less than
0.005 inch
• C – Honed from 0.005 to less than
0.007 inch
• E – Rounded Cutting Edge
• F – Sharp Cutting Edge
• J – Polished to 4 micro inch finish AA
(arithmetic average) on Rake face only
• K – Double Chamfered Cutting Edge
• P – Double Chamfered and Rounded
Cutting Edge
• S – Chamfered and Rounded Cutting
Edge
• T – Chamfered Cutting Edge on Rake
face only
• The ninth position is a
capital letter
indicating the hand of
an insert: R – Right
Hand; L – Left Hand;
N – Neutral.
• The tenth position
indicates the shape of
the chip breaker
Insert Clamping
Methods
• A pocket, at the end of the toolholder is used
to accurately locate the insert, which is held in
place with four basic types of clamping
methods
C- Clamp Lock
This method uses a clamp that locates the insert
by clamping on the top face of the insert.
The clamp on type utilizes a breaker piece, so it is
used for inserts without a breaker.
Double Clamp Lock: D
type
• The double clamp type is for locking an insert
(with a hole) into the main body of the holder
pocket and side with a single action.
• Easier to index or change insert without the lock
pin
• Allows for chip breakers
D Clamp lock
Screw locks: S type

• This method uses a machine screw

directly through a hole in the insert
to fasten the insert to the tool
holder.
Cam lock or Pin lock type: E type

• This method uses a pin

that is set out of centre,
thus when the cam is
rotated it pushes the
insert into the pocket
and clamps.
 Clamp on + pin lock (Multi lock): M type

This method uses a double clamping method that

locates the insert on the top face and depending on the
insert geometry on either one or two side faces
Wedge type (Contd..)
 • This method uses an L
shaped lever to clamp the
Lever lock: P type insert on two walls of the
insert pocket.
Insert Nomenclature: ISO Standards
 Normal rake and orthogonal
Quiz questions same when its
rake of a turning tool will be

Back rake of a turning tool is (a) φ = 0

measured on its
(b) φ1 = 0
(a) machine longitudinal
plane (c) λ = 0
(b) machine transverse (d) φ1 = 90
plane • Ans: C Normal plane of a turning tool is
(c) orthogonal plane always perpendicular to its
(d) normal plane (a)πX plane
• Ans: B (b)πY plane
(c)πC plane
(d)none of them
Ans: C
 A cutting tool can never have its
Quiz questions (a) rake angle – positive
Principal cutting edge angle (b) rake angle – negative
of any turning tool is (c) clearance angle – positive
measured on its (d) clearance angle – negative
(a) πR Ans: D
(b) πY
(c) πX Orthogonal clearance and side clearance of a
turning tool will be same if its perpendicular
(d) πo cutting edge angle is
Ans: A (a) φ = 30
(b) φ = 45
(c) φ = 60
(d) φ = 90
Ans: D
 Quiz questions
Inclination angle of a
turning tool is measured on
its
(a) reference plane
(b) cutting plane
(c) orthogonal plane Normal rake and side rake of a turning tool
will be same if its
(d) normal (a) φ = 0 and λ = 0
Ans: B (b) φ = 90 and λ = 0
(c) φ = 90 and λ = 90
(d) φ = 0 and λ = 90
Ans: B
 Quiz questions
The angle between
orthogonal plane and
normal plane of a turning
tool is
(a) γo
(b) φ
The values of orthogonal clearance and normal
(c) γn clearance of a turning tool will be same if,
(d) λ (a) φ = 0 and λ = 90
Ans: D (b) αX = αY
(c) λ = 0
(d) none of the above
Ans: C
 Quiz questions
The master line for the rake surface
of the turning tool of geometry : -
10o, 0o, 8o, 6o, 15o, 30o, 0.1 (inch)
is
(a) machine longitudinal plane
(b) machine transverseIf plane
the approach angle of a turning tool be 30o, the value
(c) cutting plane of its principal cutting edge angle will be
(d) orthogonal plane (a) O deg
Ans: A (b) 30 deg
(c) 60 deg
(d) 90 deg.
Ans: C