UNIT I

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Prof. Ashish H. Raut

 PRINCIPLE OF MACHINING

A metal rod of irregular shape, size and surface is converted

into a finished rod of desired dimension and surface by machining by
proper relative motions of the tool-work pair.
MACHINING REQUIREMENTS
GEOMETRY OF SINGLE POINT TURNING TOOLS
 Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play
very important roles on their performances in achieving
effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of
machining.
 Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of
major cutting edges (points) involved as follows:
 Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting
tools and boring tools
 Double (two) point: e.g., drills
 Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching
tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.
PARTS OF A SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
Part Description
 Shank
- It is the body of the tool which is ungrounded.
 Face
- It is the surface over which the chip slides.
 Base
- It is the bottom surface of the shank.
 Flank
- It is the surface of the tool facing the work piece. There
are two flanks namely end flank and side flank.
 Cutting edge
- It is the junction of the face and the flanks. There are two
cutting edges namely side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
 Nose
- It is the junction of side and end cutting edges.
 Geometry of positive rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

S PCT
Top View
Nose Radius (NR)

Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Back rake angle (αb)

Side rake angle

(αs) Lip angle
Front View
Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

Geometry of negative rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View
Nose Radius (NR)
Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Side rake angle (αs) Back rake angle (αb)

Lip angle Front View

Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

Cutting tool angles and their significance
o Back rake angle
oThe back rake angle is the angle between the face of the tool and a
line parallel to the base of the shank in a plane parallel to the side
cutting edge.
•The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to shear the
work material and form chip.
o Side Rake Angles
•It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined side ways.
o The Rake Angle
•The rake angle is always at the topside of the tool.
•It influence on tool strength. A tool with negative rake will
withstand far more loading than a tool with positive rake.
•It influence on cutting pressure. A tool with a positive rake angle
reduces cutting forces by allowing the chips to flow more freely
across the rake surface.
Functions the rake angle,
o It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.
o It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and
consequently helps to increase the tool life and reduce the power
consumption.
o It improves the surface finish.

Positive Rake
•It reduces compression, the forces, and the friction, yielding a thinner,
less deformed and cooler chip.
•But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section, and
heat conduction capacity.
•When cutting tough, alloyed materials that tend to work-harden, such
as certain stainless steels, when cutting soft or gummy metals, or when
low rigidity of workpiece, tooling, machine tool, or fixture allows chatter
to occur.
Negative Rake:
• To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat
conductivity,
• zero or negative rake angles are employed on carbide, ceramic,
polycrystalline diamond, and polycrystalline cubic boron nitride
cutting tools.
• These materials tend to be brittle, but their ability to hold their
superior hardness at high temperature results in their selection for high
speed and continuous machining operation.
• Negative rakes increases tool forces but this is necessary to provide
added support to the cutting edge. This is particularly important in
making intermittent cuts and in absorbing the impact during the initial
engagement of the tool and work.
• Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess good
toughness (low transverse rupture strength).
• Thus negative rake (or small rake) causes high compression, tool
force, and friction, resulting in highly deformed, hot chip.
RELIEF ANGLES
• to minimize physical interference or rubbing contact with machined surface
and the work piece.
• to eliminate tool breakage and to increase tool life.
• If the relief angle is too large, the cutting tool may chip or break. If the angle
is too small, the tool will rub against the workpiece.
• Small relief angles are essential when machining hard and strong materials
and they should be increased for the weaker and softer materials.
• A smaller angle should be used for interrupted cuts or heavy feeds, and a
larger angle for semi-finish and finish cuts.
Side relief angle: The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool
from rubbing against the work when longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed
will require greater side relief angle.
End relief angle: The End relief angle prevents the end flank of the tool from
rubbing against the work. A minimum relief angle is given to provide
maximum support to the tool cutting edge by increasing the lip angle. The
front clearance angle should be increased for large diameter works.
Side cutting edge angle:

•It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is
distributed on a wider surface.
• It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and
permits greater cutting speed.
• It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.
•Large side cutting edge angles are lightly to cause the tool to chatter.

End cutting edge angle:

• To prevent the trailing front cutting edge of the tool from rubbing
against the work.
• A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool.
• It varies from 8 to 15 degrees.
Nose radius: The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.

• Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous
shearing action and provides better surface finish.

• All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning
tools.

• It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the

wear taking place in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase in
tool life.

• Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits

higher cutting speeds.
• Positive rake – helps reduce cutting force
and thus cutting power requirement.
• Negative rake – to increase edge-strength
and life of the tool
• Zero rake – to simplify design and
manufacture of the form tools.
TOOL SIGNATURE
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point
cutting tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in
degrees, and the size of the nose radius.
There are several systems available like American standard
Association system (ASA), Orthogonal rake system (ORS), Normal
rake system (NRS), and Maximum rake system (MRS).

The system most commonly used is American Standard Association

(ASA),

In ASA system, the angle of tool face that, is its slope, are defined in two
orthogonal planes, one parallel and other perpendicular to the axis of
cutting tool, both plane being perpendicular to the base of tool.
Tool designation.
Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief
angle, End cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Edge angle and
Nose radius.
αb-αs-θe-θs-Ce-Cs-R
8 -14 -6- 6 -6 -15 -1
1. Bake rake angle is 8
2. Side rake angle is 14
3. End relief angle is 6
4. Side relief angle is 6
5. End cutting Edge angle is 6
6. Side cutting Edge angle is 15
7. Nose radius is 1 mm
In ASA system of tool angels, the angels are specified
independently of the position of the cutting edge. But in actual
cutting operation, we should include the side cutting edge
(principle cutting edge).
Such a system is known as orthogonal rake system (ORS).

The tool designation under ORS is

Inclination angle, Rake angle, side relief angle, end relief angle,
end cutting edge angle, approach angle, nose radius.
i-α-γ-γi- Ce-λ- R
typically, 0-10-6-6-8-10-1mm
Relation between ASA system and ORS
tan α = tan αs sin λ + tan αb cos λ
tan αb= tan α cos λ+ tan i sin λ
tan αs = tan α sin λ - tan i cos λ
tan i= - tan αs cos λ+ tan b sin λ
ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING

o Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of

the tool is 90 degree to the line of action of the tool.

o If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90

degree to the line of action of the tool, the cutting action is
known as oblique.

oThe orthogonal (2 D) and oblique (3D).

ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING
Jack plane Turing,
Angle =90 operation in Angle < 90
Work Work
milling,
carpentry. drilling,
Feed Parting off Feed
shaping,
Tool
operation in Tool
grinding
Orthogonal cutting lathe, Oblique cutting etc
Sawing
Orthogonal Cutting: operation
Oblique Cutting:
 The cutting edge of the tool remains • The cutting edge of the tool remains
normal to the direction of tool feed inclined at an acute angle to the direction
or work feed. of tool feed or work feed.
 The direction of the chip flow • The direction of the chip flow velocity is at
velocity is normal to the cutting an angle with the normal to the cutting
edge of the tool. edge of the tool. The angle is known as
chip flow angle.
 Here only two components of forces • Here three components of forces are
are acting: Cutting Force and Thrust acting: Cutting Force, Radial force and
Force. So the metal cutting may be Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal
considered as a two dimensional cutting may be considered as a three
cutting. dimensional cutting.
 Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting
o The chip curls and flows oThe chip flows side ways
straight up the tool and not
side ways.

o The width of the tool is oIt may or may not.

more.

o Heat developed per unit area oHeat developed per unit area
due to friction along the is less.
tool-w/p interface is
considerably more.
ELEMENTS OF METAL CUTTING
 Cutting speed (v) : It is the distance traveled by work
surface related to the cutting edge of tool.
v = πdN / 1000 …….. m / min
 Feed (f) : The motion of cutting edge of tool with reference
to one revolution of work piece.

 Depth of cut (t) : It is measured perpendicular to axis of

work piece and in straight turning in one pass. This can be
estimated from the relation
t = ( D - d ) / 2 …….. mm
 Undeformed chip (tc) : The cross sectional area of chip
before it is removed from work piece. it is equal to the
product of feed and depth of cut.
tc = f x t ……….mm2
 All tools have a major and minor cutting edge. The major
cutting edge removes bulk of material. Where as the
minor cutting edge gives good surface finish.
ASSUMPTIONS IN ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING

 No contact at the flank i.e. the tool is perfectly sharp.

 No side flow of chips i.e. width of the chips remains

constant.

 Uniform cutting velocity.

 A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.

MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION
o When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in
front of the tool is severely stressed.
o The cutting tool produces internal shearing action in the
metal. The metal below the cutting edge yields and flows
plastically in the form of chip.
oCompression of the metal under the tool takes place.
oWhen the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded,
separation of metal takes place.
oThe plastic flow takes place in a localized area called as
shear plane.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHIPS

o There are three different types of chips produce during

machining,
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous / segmented chips and
3. Chips with built up edge
1. CONTINUOUS CHIPS
 Such chips are produced while machining ductile materials like
mild steel, copper and aluminum. Because of plastic
deformation of ductile material long and continuous chips are
produced.
The conditions for continuous chips,
 small chip thickness,
 high cutting speed,
 sharp cutting edge,
 large rake angle in cutting tool and fine feed,
 smooth tool face
 This is desirable because it produces good surface finish, low
power consumption and longer tool life.
 These chips are difficult to handle and dispose off. Further the
chips coil in a helix and curl around work and tool and may
injure the operator when it is breaking.
 To avoid this chip breakers are used.
2. DISCONTINUOUS CHIPS
o These chips are produced when cutting more brittle
materials like bronze, hard brass and gray cast iron.
o These are convenient to handle and dispose off.
o Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile materials
under the conditions such as
o large chip thickness,
o low cutting speed,
o small rake angle of tool
o Cutting fluids etc.

o If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then

the surface finish is fair, power consumption is low and
tool life is reasonable.
 3. CHIPS WITH BUILT UP EDGE
 This is nothing but a small built up edge sticking to the nose of the cutting
tool. These built up edge occurs with continuous chips.
 When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local temperature and
extreme pressure the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool chip interface,
there are possibilities of work material to weld to the cutting edge of tool and thus
forming built up edges.
This weld metal is extremely hard and brittle. This welding may affect the cutting
action of tool.
Successive layers are added to the build up edge. When this edge becomes large and
unstable it is broken and part of it is carried up the face of the tool along with chip
while remaining is left in the surface being machined.
Low cutting speeds lead to the formation of built up edge, however with high cutting
speeds associated with sintered carbide tools, the build up edge is negligible or does
not exist.
Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are
 low cutting speed,
 low rake angle,
 high feed and large depth of cut.
This formation can be avoided by the use of coolants and taking light cuts at high
speeds. This leads to the formation of crater on the surface of the tool.
CHIP BREAKERS
 Long continuous chip are
undesirable
 Chip breaker is a piece of
metal clamped to the rake
surface of the tool which
bends the chip and breaks it
 Chips can also be broken by
changing the tool geometry,
thereby controlling the chip
flow

Fig 20.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action

of a chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker clamped
on the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in
cutting tools acting as chip breakers
 ANALYSIS OF ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
WITH SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Ø- share angle
t1 – uncut chip thickness
t2 – cut chip thickness
α – back rake angle

Vf
α
Vs t2

t1 D
Ø
C

Vc
CHIP-THICKNESS RATIO AND SHEAR ANGLE

 The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to

thicker after separation from the parent metal. Metal
prior to being cut is much longer than the chip which
is removed.
 Let t1 = Chip thickness before cutting
t2 = Chip thickness after cutting
 Chip thickness ratio, r = t1/t2

  The chip thickness ratio is always less than unity.

K = chip reduction co-efficient = 1 / r .

 When metal is cut there is no change in the volume of
the metal cut.
t1b1l1=t2b2l2
where
b1 = width of cut
l1 = length of chip before cutting
b2 = width of chip after cutting
l2 = length of chip after cutting
It is observed/assumed that, b1= b2

t1l1 = t2l2
Chip thickness ratio can be obtained by measuring l1
and l2
From triangle ABC, we have
BC B

----- = Sinφ t1
AB Ø
A
BC t1 C

AB = ----- = ----- ---------------- (1)

Sinφ Sinφ
From triangle ABD

BD B
------ = Sin (90 – φ + α) = cos (φ – α)
D
AB α
φ

T2 A
----- = cos (φ – α)
AB ???
T2
=> AB = --------------- -------------- (2)
Cos (φ – α)
From 1 and 2, we get

t1 t2
------- = --------
Sin φ cos (φ – α)
t1 sin φ
----- = ----------- = r
t2 cos( φ – α )

t1
----- = r
t2
 Sin φ
r = --------------------------- divide by Cos φ in numerator as well as denominator
Cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α
Sin φ/ Cos φ
r = ------------------------------
(Cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α )/ Cos φ

r = tan φ/(cos α + tan φ sin α )

rcos α + r tan φ sin α = tan φ

r cos α
rcos α = (1- r sin α ) tan φ tan φ = --------------
1 – r sinα

Where
Φ = shear angle
α = Rake angle
The closer the shear angle approaches 450 , the better the machinability is said to be .
 ANALYSIS OF ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
WITH SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Ø- share angle
t1 – uncut chip thickness
t2 – cut chip thickness
α – back rake angle

Vf
α
Vs t2

t1 D
Ø
C

Vc
 VELOCITY RELATIONSHIPS
Where Vc = cutting velocity
Vs = shear velocity
Vf = velocity of chip-flow up the tool face.
Apply sine principle, Vs
Vf
Vf/ Sin φ = Vc/ sin (90- φ +α) = Vs/ Sin (90- α) ?

α
Vf / Sin φ = Vc / Cos(φ-α) = Vs/ Cos(α)
90- α φ

Volume flow rate principle

Vc
Before and after same

vc cos
t1 b1 Vc = t2 b2 Vf vs 
cos(    )
Vf /Vc= t1/t2= r
vc sin
vf 
v f  vc  r cos(    )
 B φ
α D
cφ
Shear strain = distance sheared / thickness of zone A
s = AB/DC= (AC+CB)/DC
= (AC/DC)+(CB/DC)
90-φ+α
s =cotφ+ tan(φ-α)
To produce minimum shear strain in chip diff. shear strain w.r.t. to
φ and equate to zero.

Optimum or min shear angle…… 2 φ- α =90

Shear strain rate= Vs/thickness of shear zone

ṡ = Vs/ts
ts is approx. 2.5x10-3 mm

From principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of two bodies

(tool and chip) is equal to the vector difference btw their
velocities relative to the reference body
  
Vc = Vs + Vf
FORCES ACTING DURING MACHINING OPERATION
 F- frictional force at chip tool interface
 N- force normal to frictional force
 Fs- shear force along share plane
 Fn – force normal to shear plane
 These four actual forces acting in machining are the dynamic
environment there fore it is difficult to measure them.
 Hence each and every force can be resolved into two component
i.e. horizontal and vertical.
Let,
Fc - algebraic sum of vertically resolved forces (cutting force)
Ft – algebraic sum of horizontally resolved forces (thrust force)
 Because Fc and Ft are acting in perpendicular plane, these
forces can be measured by using dynamometer.
 Merchant circle is used for determining the actual forces
from measurable forces.
MERCHANT FORCE CIRCLE
 Merchant suggested a compact and easiest way of
representing the various forces inside a circle having
the vector R as diameter.
 Fig shows merchant circle diagram which is
convenient to determine the relation between the
various forces and angles.
Assumptions of the theory:
• Tool edge is sharp.
• The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear
plane.
• There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the
shear plane.
• The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
• The shear angle ∅ adjusts itself to give minimum work.
• The friction angle β remains constant and is independent of ∅.
• The chip width remains constant.
MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
(β - α)
Wor
Fn k
Ft R
α

β
N
 Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc
∅ Clearance Angle

(β - α)
Work
Fn

Ft R
α

β
N
 From merchant force circle
Sin β= F/R, Cos β= N/R
Sin (β-α)= Ft/R, Cos (β-α)=Fc/R
Sin (ϕ+β-α) =Fn/R , Cos (ϕ+β-α) =Fs/R

R= Fc/Cos (β-α) = Ft/ Sin(ϕ+β) = F/ Sinβ

=N/ Cosβ = Fn/ Sin (ϕ+β-α) =Fs/ Cos (ϕ+β-α)
 µ - coefficient of friction between chip tool interface
µ= tan β
 Tan (β-α) =Ft/Fc ,  Tan β= (Ft + Fc tan α)/(Fc-Ft tanα)

In general Fc> Ft
but in some cases Ft > Fc – turning broaching grinding
, Ft/Fc=2.5 in grinding operation
Stress in the chip :-
A chip is supposed to experience both the stress
and strain during machining because it is produced as
s result of plastic deformation of the method.

 Fs = [Fc Cos (ϕ+β-α) ]/ (Cos (β-α)

 Shear stress σs =shear force/shear area

= Fs/As= (Fs× sin ϕ)/ (b × t1) ……..N/mm2

 Stress normal to shear plane σn

σn = Fn/As
= (Fn× sin ϕ)/ (b × t1) ……..N/mm2
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Frictional Force System

D Chip α
α Tool
C Fs
Fc Clearance Angle
(90- ∅
α
E α) α Fc O (β - α)
(β - α) Work
(90- G Fn
α)
Ft R
Ft R α
α
F
α F

β
β N
B N
A

F  OA  CB  CG  GB  ED  GB The coefficient of friction

 F  FC sin  Ft cos  F
  tan 
N  AB  OD  CD  OD  GE N
 N  FC cos   Ft sin Where   Friction angle
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram
Shear Force System
B
α Chip α
A Tool
Fs Fs
(90-∅) Fc Clearance Angle
Fc ∅ ∅
C O
∅ (β - α) (β - α)
(90-∅) Work
D Fn
Fn
Ft R Ft R
α α

∅ F

β
E N

FS  OA  OB  AB  OB  CD
 FS  FC cos   Ft sin  Also:
FN  AE  AD  DE  BC  DE FN  FS tan(     )
 FN  FC sin   Ft cos 
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

α
F  FC sin   Ft cos 
Chip
Tool
Fs
Fc Clearance Angle
∅
(β - α)
Work
N  FC cos   Ft sin 
Fn
Ft R
α
FS  FC cos   Ft sin 
F FN  FC sin   Ft cos 
β FN  FS tan(      )
N
Power required in Metal cutting

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in cutting: PC  FC  vC

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in shear: Ps  Fs  vs

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in friction: PF  F  v f

The total Power required:
P  Power supplied by the motor
 P  Work consumed in cutting per sec  work spent in feeding per sec
 P  Fc  vc  Ft  feed velocity
In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal. Similarly Fc
is very small compared to Fc. So the work spent in feeding can be considered
negligible.

Therefore, total power required in cutting P  Pc  Ps  Pf

Work done in cutting :-
The total work done in cutting is equal to the sum
of the work done in shearing the metal and the work done
in overcoming the friction .
Power required in cutting :-
= cutting force × cutting speed
P = Fc * Vc ……..Watt
Vc = πdN / 1000 …….. m / min
Where, d- dia. of job in mm,
Specific cutting energy:- energy required for unit volume of
material to be removed.
= work done/ MRR =
=FcxVc/t1bVc = Fc/Ao
Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

Ernest and Merchant gave the relation

1
   (  )
4 2
M. Eugene Merchant
Assumptions of the theory:
• Tool edge is sharp.
• The work material undergoes deformation across a thin
shear plane.
• There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress
on the shear plane.
• The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
• The shear angle ∅ adjusts itself to give minimum work.
• The friction angle β remains constant and is independent
of ∅.
• The chip width remains constant.
Derivation: We know that,, Fs = σs * As
Bt1 σs
Fs = -------- ………………… (1)
Sinφ
From merchant force circle,
Fs cos( β – α )
Fc = --------------------- ……………………(2)
Cos ( φ + β – α )
Sub eqn (1) in eqn (2) .we get
Bt1 σs cos (β – α ) 1
Fc = -------------------------- [ ----------------------------- ]
Sin φ cos ( φ + β – α ) α
And power comsumption ,
Bt1 Fs cos (β – α )
P = Fc * Vc = Vc * --------------------------- ……………………….(3)
Sin φ cos ( φ + β – α )
During a cutting operation , φ takes a value such that the least amount of energy is consumed or P is
minimum.
v, b,t1 and α are given (const) and if we assume that Fs and β do not change when φ varies and that P
is a function of φ and is of the form,
const
P(φ) = -------------------------------- ………..(4)
Sinφ cos(φ + β– α )
P(φ) will be minimum when the denominator is maximum, then
differentiating the denominator w.r.t φ and equating it to zero
,we get
d(Sinφ cos(φ + β– α )
dφ

Cosφ cos( φ+ β –α ) – sin φ sin ( φ + β – α ) = 0

cos (2φ + β – α ) = 0

Л
2φ + β – α = -----
2
Л β α
φ = ----- - ----- + -----
4 2 2 ….hence proved
TOOL FAILURE
Whenever tool is not performing machining satisfactory it is said
to be fail.
How to know..??
Surface finish, forces, power consumption, color of chip.
Modes of failure
1. Thermal cracking and softening.
2. Mechanical chipping.
3. Gradual wear.
1. Thermal cracking and softening.
Due to heat generated in the metal cutting process, the tool
tip and the area closer to the cutting edge becomes very hot and
if this heat crosses the high temp, at which the tool losses its
hardness the tool material starts deforming plastically. This is
said to have failed due to softening.
The factors responsible for this are cutting speed, high feed
rate, and excessive depth of cut, smaller nose radius and the
choice of a wrong tool material.
2. Mechanical chipping:-
 The mechanical chipping of the nose and the cutting edge of the
tool are commonly observed causes of tool failure.
 The factors responsible for this are too high cutting pressure.
Mechanical impact, excessive wear, too high vibrations and chatter,
weak tip and cutting edge etc
3. Gradual wear:-two types of wears
 Crater wear: - This type of wear takes place in a cutting its face, at a small
distance from its cutting edge.
 This type of wear takes place while machining ductile material
like steel alloys, in which continuous chip is produced. The
resultant feature of this type of wear is the formation of a crater
or a depression at the tool-chip interface.
 Higher feeds and lack of cutting fluids increases the rate of
crater wear.
 Flank wear: - This type of wear occurs in the flank below the cutting
edge. It occurs due to abrasion btw the tool flank and the w/p excessive
heat generated as a result of the same.
 The magnitude of this wear mainly depends upon the relative
harnesses of the w/p tool material at the time of cutting and also
the extent of strain hardness of the chip.
Diffusion wear:-
 This occurs because of the diffusion of metal and carbon
atoms from the tool surface into the work material and the
chips.
Plastic deformation:-
 When high compressive stresses act on the tool rake face,
the tool may be deformed downwards and this deformation
takes place primarily in the nose area of the insert and
reduces the relief angle.
 Deformation leads to the sudden failure of the tool by
fracture or localized heating.
TOOL LIFE
 The length of the period for which a tool can be used
satisfactorily is called the tool life.
 When the wear reaches certain values the tool is not capable of
further cutting unless it is resharpened .
 Tool life is the most important criterion for assessing the
performance of a tool material, machinability of work material
and for determining cutting conditions.
There are three common ways of expressing tool life.
 1. The time period in minutes btw two successive grindings.
 2. In terms of number of components machined btw 2 successive
grindings.
 This mode is commonly used when the tool operates continuously, as in
case of automatic machine.
 3. In terms of the volume of material removed btw two
successive grindings.
 This mode of expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily
used for heavy stock removed.
Factors affecting tool life:-
 Cutting speed  major influence
 feed and depth of cut  minor

 Tool Geometry  αb↑ θ ↑ Tool life ↑

 Tool material  harder than w/p

 Work material  soft, brittle

 Use of cutting fluids 30% rise in tool life

 Nature of cutting

 Rigidity of machine and work

Out of all the above factors, the maximum effect on tool is of

cutting speed.
The tool life varies inversely as the cutting speed. i.e the higher
the cutting speed the smaller the tool life.
According to Taylor ,the relationship btw cutting speed and tool
life is,
Speed α 1 / Tool life.
VTn = C … Taylors tool life eq.
VTnfpdq = C … modified Taylors tool life eq.
Where V = Cutting speed ……………m/min
T = Tool life …….minute
f = feed ………….mm/rev
d= depth of cut …….mm
C= A constant called machining constant.
n = an exponent ,whose value largely depends on the material of
the tool called tool life index.
n- 0.05-0.1 high carbon tool steel
0.1-0.2 high speed steel
0.2-0.4 carbide
0.4-0.6 ceramics
0.6-0.7 diamond /CBN
HEAT GENERATION IN METAL CUTTING:-
The temperature generated during the metal cutting controls the rate of tool wear, the
practical cutting speed and the metal removed rate.
1. Primary deformation zone:- (chip- work interface)
It is the region in which actual plastic deformation of the metal occurs during
machining. Due to this deformation heat is generated. A portion of heat is carried
away by the chip, due to which its temperature is raised .The rest of the heat is
retained by the work piece. It is known as primary deformation zone.
2. Secondary deformation zone (tool chip interface)
As the chip slides upwards along the face of the tool friction occurs btw
their surfaces, due to which heat is generated. A part this heat is carried the chip,
which further raises the temp of the chip. This area is known as secondary
deformation zone.
3. Tool- work piece interface :-
This portion of tool flank which rubs against the work surface is another
source of heat generation due to friction. This heat is also shared by the tool ,w/p
and the coolant used. Is more pronounced when the tool is not sufficiently sharp.

Chip carries 70 % of heat.

Work piece carries 15 % of heat and
Tool carries the remaining 15 % of heat generated.
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS AND CUTTING –FLUIDS
These characteristics are:-
1. Hot hardness - The hardness and strength of the tool should
be maintained at high temperatures encountered in metal
cutting .
2. Toughness – The tool should be capable of withstanding the
impact forces in the tool due to interrupted cutting.
3. Wear resistance - The tool should have an acceptance life
before it is resharpened . The tool should not chemically react
with the work material.
4. Co – efficient of friction- The coefficient of friction ‘μ’ for tool
material must be low, so that the tool wear will be minimum
and result in a good surface finish.
5. Economy – Cost of the tool material selected should be
minimum for economical machining cost.
6. It should be capable of withstanding sudden cooling effect of
coolant used during cutting.
TYPICAL CARBIDE INSERTS

FIGURE: (a) Typical

carbide inserts with
various shapes and chip-
breaker features. Round
inserts are also
available. The holes in
the inserts are
standardized for
interchangeability.
Source: Courtesy of
Kyocera Engineered
Ceramics, Inc., and
Manufacturing
Engineering, Society of
Manufacturing
Engineers. (b) Methods
of attaching inserts to a
tool shank by clamping,
(c) with wing lockpins,
and (d) with a brazed
Cutting Tool Materials

FIGURE: Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts with
various shapes. Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles.
Source: Kennametal, Inc.
CUTTING FLUIDS
Cutting fluids ,sometimes referred to as lubricants coolants are
liquids and gases applied to the tool and w/p tot assist on
the cutting operations.
Purpose of cutting fluid (Functions)
1. To cool the tool

2. To Cool the w/p

3. To wash the chip away from the tool.

4. To improve surface finish and tool life 30%.

5. To Reduces force and energy consumptions.
6. To cause chips break up into small part.
7. To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
PROPERTIES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

A cutting fluid should have the following properties

1. Good lubricating qualities to produce low-co-efficient of
friction.
2. High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.
3. High heat absorption for readily absorbing the heat
developed.
4. Harmless to the skin of the operators.
5. Non-corrosive to the work or the m/c.
6. Low priced to minimize production cost.
7. Low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
8. Harmless to the bearings.
9. Should be chemically natural inert.
10. Transparency so that the cutting action of the tool may
be observed.
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
1. Water:-
It is principally a coolant and not a lubricant water with alkali, salt or
water soluble additive and little soap are sometimes used as a coolant.
But water alone is objectionable for its corrosiveness.
2. Soluble Oils:-
These are emulsions composed of around 80% or more of water, soap
and mineral oil. The soap acts as an emulsifying agent which break the
oil into minute particles to disperse them throughout water. The water
increases the cooling effect, and the oil provides the best lubricating
properties and ensures freedom from rust.
3. Straight Oils:-
These are straight mineral oils (petroleum), Kerosene, low viscosity
petroleum factions. Straight fixed or fatty oils consisting of animal,
vegetable, lard oil etc. They have both cooling and lubricating
properties and are used in light machining operations.
4. Mixed oils:-
This is a combination of straight mineral ands straight fatty oil. This
makes an excellent lubricant and coolant for automatic screw m/c
work and where accuracy and good surface finish are of prime
importance .
MACHINABILITY:-
THE CASE WITH WHICH A GIVEN MATERIAL MAY BE WORKED
WITH A CUTTING TOOL IS MACHINABILITY.
Machinability depends on:
Chemical composition of w/p material.
1. Micro structure
2. Mechanical properties.
3. Physical properties.
4. Cutting conditions.

Factors affecting machinability:-

Common machine variables affecting ease of cutting are.
1. Cutting speed
2. Dimensions of the cut.
3. Tool material
4. Tool form (angles, radii, etc.,)
5. Cutting fluid
6. Nature of engagement of tool with the work.
ECONOMICS OF MACHINING
The method of determination of optimum process parameter for given
economic condition of machining is called economics of machining.
Out of three process parameter cutting velocity is one which has highest
influence on economics, therefore it is to determine optimum cutting velocity.
1. Minimum cost criteria.
Vopt = C[(n/1-n)x(lm/Cg)]

ᵙ
Topt = [(n/1-n)x(Cg/lm)]
Where,
Lm- machining labor charge in Rs/min.
Cg- cost of regrinding the tool one time
n- Taylor tool exponent.
C - Taylor tool constant.
2. Maximum production rate criteria.

ᵙ
Vopt = C[(n/1-n)x(1/Tc)]

Topt = [(n/1-n)xTc]
Tc – time needed to change the tool one time
TOOL – FORCE DYNAMOMETERS.

Construction and working principle of some common tool –

force dynamometers.
 The dynamometers being commonly used now-a-days for
measuring machining forces desirably accurately and
precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics) are
either
• STRAIN GAUGE TYPE OR
• PIEZOELECTRIC TYPE
 Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less
accurate and consistent, whereas, the piezoelectric type are
highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very expensive
for high material cost and stringent construction.
TURNING DYNAMOMETER
 Turning dynamometers may be strain gauge or piezoelectric
type and may be of one, two or three dimensions capable to
monitor all of PX, PY and PZ.
 For ease of manufacture and low cost, strain gauge type turning
dynamometers are widely used and preferably of 2 – D
(dimension) for simpler construction, lower cost and ability to
provide almost all the desired force values.
 Design and construction of a strain – gauge type 2 – D turning
dynamometer are shown schematically in Fig. a and
photographically in Fig. b.
 Two full bridges comprising four live strain gauges are provided
for PZ and PX channels which are connected with the strain
measuring bridge for detection and measurement of strain in
terms of voltage which provides the magnitude of the cutting
forces through calibration.
Fig. a.
Fig. b
 DRILLING DYNAMOMETER

 Physical construction of a strain gauge type 2 – D drilling

dynamometer for measuring torque and thrust force is
typically shown schematically in Fig. 10.11 and pictorially in
Fig. 10.12.
 Four strain gauges are mounted on the upper and lower
surfaces of the two opposite ribs for PX – channel and four on
the side surfaces of the other two ribs for the torque channel.
 Before use, the dynamometer must be calibrated to enable
determination of the actual values of T and PX from the
voltage values or reading taken in PC.
SOME IMP FORMULA
Cutting speed, v = πdN / 1000 …….. m / min vc cos

vs 
r cos α
cos(    )
 Shear angle tan φ = -------------- vc sin
1 – r sinα vf 
cos(    )
Shear strain rate= ṡ = Vs/ts
ts is approx. 25x10-3 mm t1/t2=r
v f  vc  r
 Shear strain s =cotφ+ tan(φ-α)
Coefficient of friction between chip tool interface VTn = C
VTnfpdq = C
µ= tan β = (Ft + Fc tan α)/(Fc-Ft tanα)
 Shear stress σs =shear force/shear area
= Fs/As= (Fs× sin ϕ)/ (b × t1) ……..N/mm2
 Stress normal to shear plane σn
F  FC sin   Ft cos 
σn = Fn/As
= (Fn× sin ϕ)/ (b × t1)..N/mm2 N  FC cos   Ft sin 
 Power required in cutting :- FS  FC cos   Ft sin 
= cutting force × cutting speed FN  FC sin   Ft cos 
P = Fc * Vc ……..Watt
 Specific cutting energy = Fc/t1b
FN  FS tan(      )
ASSIGNMENT NO 1
DATE OF SUBMISSION-
1. Sketch a Merchant’s circle force diagram and explain the different
quantities involved. State the various assumptions made.
2. What is meant by built-up edge (BUE) ? With a neat sketch explain the
formation of a (BUE). [6]
3. How do you define tool life ? Explain the parameters that control the
tool life of a single point cutting tool. [6]
4. What are the important factors which are to be considered while
selecting cutting fluid ? Discuss various types of cutting Fluids.
[08]
5. derive the expression for shear angle in orthogonal cutting in terms of
rake angle and chip thickness ratio. [08]
6. In orthogonal cutting test with a tool of rake angle 100 the following
observation were made :
i. chip thickness ratio.
ii. horizontal component of cutting force = 1290 N
iii. vertical component of cutting force = 1650 N
from the merchant theory, calculate the various components of the cutting
forces and the coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface. [10]
7. During an orthogonal machining (turning) operation
of C-40 steel, the following data were obtained :
(i) chip thickness = 0.45 mm
(ii) width of cut = 2.5 mm
(iii) feed = 0.25 mm/rev
(iv) Tangential cut force = 1130 N
(v) Feed thrust force = 295 N
(vi) Cutting speed = 2.5 m/s
(vii) Rake angle = +10º.
Calculate :
(a) Force of shear at the shear time.
(b) Kinematic coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface.