DEPARTMENT

OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

PROCESS CONTROL A2
PRCCHA2
CONTACT INFORMATION
Dr. Thandiwe Sithole
Room: 4133, John Orr Building
Phone: 011-559-6815
Email: nastassias@uj.ac.za

Consultation:
Wednesday: 11:20 – 12:05
 MODULE CONTENT
Learning unit 1: Introduction to process control and

Identifying process variables

Learning unit 2: Control Theory

Learning unit 3: Process Instrumentation and Control

Learning unit 4: Control Strategies

Learning unit 5: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

Learning unit 6: Alarms interlocks and safety trips

 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify and draw the various symbols of a P& I piping
and instrumentation diagram
• Identify the various types of pumps and valves and
understand the basic operation and selection
• Understand the principles of various flow, temperature,
pressure and liquid level measurements
• Understand the various types of control, including
control objectives, control mechanism, design aspects
and hardware elements and mathematical models
• Understand different control strategies and be able to
select and apply the best control strategy for a given
circumstance
• Understand and conduct basic hazard and operability
study (HAZOP) studies
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
The following graduate attributes will be developed by the
above outcomes:
Graduate Attribute 2: Application of scientific and
engineering knowledge-Apply knowledge of mathematics,
natural science and engineering sciences to defined and
applied engineering procedures, processes, systems and
methodologies to solve broadly-defined engineering
problems.
 EXIT LEVEL OUTCOMES
The program leading to a BEng Tech in Chemical Engineering
qualification shall be a 14 credits at NQF Level 7.
Learning assumed to be in place.
Learners entering this module will have been judged to be
competent regarding the learning outcomes of Chemical
Engineering Fundamentals 1
Estimated credits for this course:
Lectures: 40 hours 4.0
Tutorials: 24 hours 2.4
Self-study and other: 78 hours 7.8
TOTAL: 14.0
Learning Unit 1
Learning unit title Introduction to process control and identifying process
variables
Introduction/Overview In this learning unit process control will be defined and
process control terms such as process variable, setpoint,
controlled variables, manipulated variables disturbances,
error, magnitude offset, duration, rate of change, offset,
manual control system, Automatic control, closed control
loops will be explained and discussed.
Learning outcomes Unit assessment criteria
At the end of this unit you should be able to: You will be assessed as competent if you are able to:

 Define process control Explain the term process control

 Determine possible control objectives, input
variables (manipulated and disturbance) and
output variables (measured and
unmeasured), and constraints (hard or soft),
as well as classify the process as continuous,
batch, or semi-continuouss
 Assess the importance of process control
from safety, environmental, and economic
 points of view
 Sketch a process instrumentation and control
diagram
• Draw a simplified control block diagram
• Understand the basic idea of feedback control
• Understand basic sensors (measurement
devices) and actuators
• Explain the process control incentives
• Identify Process variables
• Identify control objectives in a process
• Classify Process variables as controlled variables,
manipulated variables and disturbances.
• Define and discuss process control terms such as
process variable, setpoint, controlled variables,
manipulated variables disturbances, error, magnitude
offset, duration, rate of change, offset, manual control
system, Automatic control, closed control loops
 In a given a process can identify process variable,
setpoint, controlled variables, error, magnitude offset,
duration, rate of change, offset,
 Demonstrate/ draw a closed and open control loops
system of an given process
 Describe the importance of process control loops

Assessment methods Tutorials; tests; exams; assignments

Media/resources for this unit Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks, consultations with
lecturer and/0r tutors, internet
Learning Unit 2
Learning unit title
Introduction/Overview
Learning outcomes
You will be assessed as competent if you are able
to:
 Explain why we need process control
 Explain the differences between open and
closed loop are explained
 Identify elements of closed loop control
system
 Explain functions of elements of closed
control loop
 Explain difference between a feedback and
feed forward control systems are explained
 Explain and identify the effect of
disturbances on the control system
 Construct the correct strategy to a given
process
 Apply, identify and explain the different
control modes select and apply the best
control strategy for a given process operation
 Draw a Feedback and Feedforward control
configuration for any given process
Assessment method
Media/resources for this unit
Control Theory
In this learning unit a design a control system by selection
of Measurements; Selection of control configuration;
Design of the controller, control mechanisms, design
aspects and hardware elements and mathematical models
for different processes will be explained and discussed.
Unit assessment criteria
You will be assessed as competent if you are able to:
 Explain clearly why we need process control
 Clearly differentiate between open and closed loop
are explained
 Clearly identify elements of closed loop control
system
 Explain clearly the functions of elements of closed
control loop
 Differentiate between a feedback and feed forward
control systems by constructing a correct control
strategy for a given process
 Clearly identify the effect of disturbances on the
control system a
 Construct the correct strategy to a given process
 Apply, identify and explain the different control modes
select and apply the best control strategy for a given
process operation
 Construct a Feedback and Feedforward control
configuration for any given process
Tutorials; tests; exams; assignment
Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks, consultations with
lecturer and/0r tutors, internet
Learning Unit 3
Learning unit title Process Instrumentation and Control
Introduction/Overview This learning unit will explain and discuss how to identify
control objectives of a process. Apply the level, pressure
and control in various processes

Learning outcomes Unit assessment criteria

At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Identify the control objective of a different 
process.
 Control, monitor and measure temperature,
pressure, flow and liquid level in a process
operation
You will be assessed as competent if you are able to:
 classify variable in any given process operation,
Explain the variables as per a given process operation,
illustrate how to control measure, monitor temperature,
pressure, flow and liquid level in different process
operation,
 Calculate the error, magnitude and rate of change of
any given process operation,
 Develop flow control loops, level control loops,
pressure control loops, temperature control loops and
composition control loops for any given process
 Identify how and where in the process operation to put
temperature, pressure, flow and liquid level flow
meters to operate the process at the set point.

Assessment method Tutorials; tests; exams; assignment

Media/resources for this unit Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks, consultations with
lecturer and/0r tutors, internet
Learning Unit 4
Learning unit title Control Strategies
Introduction/Overview In this learning unit will explain and discuss control
modes of a process namely; On/Off, Proportional
Proportional- integral, proportional-derivative apply
the best control modes for a given circumstance
Learning outcomes Unit assessment criteria
At the end of this unit you should be able to: You will be assessed as competent if you are able
to:
 Apply, identify and explain the different control
modes select and apply the best control
strategy for a given process operation  Derive the formulars of On/Off, Proportional
Proportional- integral, proportional-derivative.
 Calculate the output controller gain, pressure,
valve and temperature errors and the
proportional bend % for any given
circumstances.
 Discuss the difference between On/Off,
Proportional Proportional- integral,
proportional-derivative. List the advantages
and disadvantages of On/Off, Proportional
Proportional- integral, proportional-derivative.

Assessment method Tutorials; tests; exams; assignment

Media/resources for this unit Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks, consultations
with lecturer and/0r tutors, internet
Learning Unit 5
Learning unit title
Introduction/Overview
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Sketch/ develop process block diagrams
from a process flow diagram
 Distinguish between block flow diagram,
Process flow diagram and piping and
instrumentation diagram
 Application of P&ID
 Pressure measurement
 Level measurement
 Temperature measurement
Assessment method
Media/resources for this unit
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
In this learning unit will discuss and explain how to
identify, draw and describe various symbols of piping
and instrumentations on the process flow diagrams.
Unit assessment criteria
You will be assessed as competent if you are able to:
 Develop and draw a block flow diagram from a
piping and instrumentation diagram/ process flow
diagram and vice versa.
 Identify and draw various symbol in the provided
diagrams,
 use various symbols on a process unit within a
process diagram to provide a corrective actions
(control) when there deviations in the process.
 Describe, discuss the of Block Flow Diagram (BFD),
Process Flow Diagram (PFD), Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
 Summarise equipment information
 Explain the importance of three principal diagrams
(BFD, PFD, and P&ID)
Tutorials; tests; exams, assignment
Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks, consultations with
lecturer and/0r tutors, internet
Learning Unit 6
Learning unit title
Introduction/Overview
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Apply basic principles and functions of
alarms interlocks and safety trips.
 Apply interlocks and safety trips in different
processes
 Identify different types of alarms interlocks
and safety trips.
 Identify and describe an action plan taken if
the alarm and trip system power is lost,
 Identify and describe a manual procedure
shutdown
 Identify and describe the safety
requirement and specifications of alarm
interlocks and tips, identify and describe the
alarm and trip procedure,
 Identify and describe how and where to
use Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC),
Operation of PLC, Ladder logic and Ladder
Commands in a process plant.
 Identify types of programming languages
used construct and design truth table and
logic circuit diagrams
Assessment method
Media/resources for this unit
Alarms interlocks and safety trips
In this learning unit will discuss and explain the design
principle of alarms and interlocks by using
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) Operation of
PLC, Ladder logic and Ladder Commands
Unit assessment criteria
You will be assessed as competent if you are able to:
 construct truth table from Booleans expression
 Use different types of programming language and
sign to construct a logic circuit from in any given
process
 Develop the alarm interlock and trip procedure
for a given process.
 Identify which type of alarm interlock is suitable for
different process plants that will be given
 Develop Booleans expression from a process
 Identify what kind of action plan should be taken
if a process scenario is given
 construct logic circuits from truth table and ladder
diagrams.
Tutorials; tests; exams; assignment
Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks, consultations with
lecturer and/0r tutors, internet
Learning Unit 7
Learning unit title Hazard operability analysis
(HAZOP)
Introduction/Overview In this learning unit will discuss and
explain how to conduct basic
Hazard operability analysis
(HAZOP) study for a given process
operation
Learning outcomes Unit assessment criteria
At the end of this unit you You will be assessed as competent
should be able to: if you are able to:

 Define HAZOP study  Identify a procedures followed

 conduct a HAZOP study when conducting basic Hazop
for any given process study and report, perform a risk
operation assessment by identifying
hazards on the operating
process plant,
 Examine how control systems
deviate from designated
function, (for example produce
incorrect output for a given
input) and the effect that this
would have.
 Examine whether the proposed
or current safeguards will
adequately prevent the
deviation or mitigate its
consequences. develop a
Hazop report .

Assessment method Tutorials; tests; exams; assignment

Media/resources for this unit Lecture notes, tutorials, textbooks,
consultations with lecturer and/0r
tutors, internet
 ASSESSMENT DETAILS
ASSESSMENT WEIGHT DATE VENUE

(Semester
Mark)

TEST 1 20% 2024 14/03/2024

TEST 2 25% 2024 18/04/2024
Test 3 30% 2024 23/05/2024
ATTENDANCE 5%
TUTORIALS AND CLASS 10% During class time
EXERCISES
ASSIGNMENT (summative 10% To be confirmed 07/06/2024
assessment)
TOTAL 100%

* *NB: NO SICK TEST, 85% attendance required

Provisional Dates for the Tests (subject to change):
 PRESCRIBED LITERATURE
CATEGORY AUTH NAME PUBLISHER ISBN NO
OR
BOOKS Svrcek A Real-Time John Wiley & Sons, 0-470-02534-4
W.Y., Approach to 2006
Mahon Process
ey Control. 2nd

SYLLABUS
D.P., edition
Young
B.R.

BOOKS Serbo Process John Wiley & Sons,, 0-471-00077-9

g D.E, Dynamics 2004
Edgar and Control.
T.F, 2nd edition
and
Mellich
amp
D.A.

BOOKS C. D. Process Prentice Hall 2003 0-13-048731-7

Johns Control
on Instrumentati
on
Technology,
7th ed

OTHER PRESCRIBED RESOURCES

DESCRIPTION WHERE TO FIND
CATEGORY
Scientific Calculator Bookshop
CALCULATOR
 RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
CATEGORY AUTHOR NAME PUBLISHER ISBN NO

BOOKS D.M. Considine Process/industrial Wiley 0-471-44250-X

instruments and controls International
handbook, 5th ed. Edition
G. Chemical Process Control: Prentice Hall 0-13-739897-2
Stephanopoulos Introduction to Theory and PTR 1985
Practice
NOTES N.T Sithole Process control B2 Lecture The notes will be
notes will be discussed in posted on
classes blackboard

RECOMMENDED ELECTRONIC MATERIAL & WEBSITES

VIDEO You-tube is a good source to find information or short lectures on the topics that will be
covered in class. However, not all the information provided is correct. Always compare the
information provided on YouTube with your class notes and prescribed textbook.

WEBSITES It is recommended that the student uses the internet as much as possible and some
assignments may be given to the students to do that incorporate the internet.
Textbooks and References
• Stephanopoulos G., “Chemical Process Control-An Introduction
to Theory and Practice,”Prentice -Hall, New Jersey, 1984.
• Seborg D. E., T. F. Edgar, and D. A. Mellichamp, “Process
Dynamics and Control,”John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1989
• Luyben W. L., “Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for
Chemical Engineers,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 2nd Ed., 1990
• Su whan Sung and In-Beum Lee, “PID Controllers and
Automatic Tuning” Ajin Press, 1998
Chapter 1: Introduction
to process control

Dr Thandiwe Sithole

14th February 2024

 Lesson outline
Why Process control in modern
industries?
Basic concepts about control systems
• Importance and relevance of control
systems
• Where and how control is done?
Evolution from Chemistry to Chemical Engineering

+ = +
A B C D

• Chemical engineering is all about changing raw materials into useful products you use everyday in a safe and
cost effective way.

• Chemistry is concerned about science understanding why things occur, creating science (new products) in a
small scale
 Evolution from Chemistry to Chemical Engineering

Chemical reaction = Liquid – liquid mixing

+ → →

Solid – liquid mixing Crystallisation Solid-liquid separation

Drying

• Chemical engineers understand how to alter the chemical, biochemical or physical state of a
substance, to create everything from face creams to fuels.
 Evolution from Chemistry to Chemical Engineering
+ =

+ → →

→ →

× 1 000 000

1 tea spoon = 5 g 5000 kg per hour

 Evolution from Chemistry to Chemical Engineering
• How do we turn a 5 gram laboratory experiment into a 5 ton per hour
chemical production process
• Do the experiment 1000 000 times per hour?
• Do the experiment in a large 5 ton capacity beaker?
 Process Concept Development – Process Layout

+ +

Liquid-
Solid- liquid
liquid Reactor
Mixer
Mixer

Heater / Solid-liquid Heater/

Reactor separator Reactor
 Process Concept Development – Equipment Layout

Different types of process units

Reactor, crystallization unit, distillation unit, refrigeration and gas absorption unit
A Chemical Process Plant
DEFINITIONS – What is a Process?
In Chemical Engineering, a process can be defined as
the conversion of a feed material into a product using
available sources of energy via chemical and/or
physical operations.

FEED PROCESS PRODUCT

In a chemical engineering plant, there are

different units e.g., reactor, distillation
column, pumps and compressors
 Objective of process control systems
Ojective : FEED PROCESS PRODUCT
The plant uses available source of energy to convert raw material to
useful products in the most economical way.
A wastewater treatment plant operates by employing a
series of processes to remove pollutants and
contaminants from wastewater before it is discharged
back into the environment or reused.

Feed: Wastewater

Processes: sedimentation, disinfection, solid

– liquid separation, etc.

Product: Pure water (clean water)

Requirements of process control
systems
To maintain these process requirements there are
external interventions to the control system. The
aim is to:
 Supress the influence of external disturbances
 Induce the stability of a chemical process
 Optimize the performance of a chemical process
Benefit of adequate control systems
The primary objectives of a process engineer when specifying instrumentation
and control schemes are:
1. Safe plant operation
 To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.
 To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide
alarms and automatic shut-down systems.
 To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating
procedures.
2. Production rate
 To achieve the design product output and required quantity.

3. Product quality
 To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards.

4. Cost
 To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate
with the other objectives; Economics maximise profit
minimize cost
 You are a process engineer working at a chemical plant that

Class activity produces urea. The plant operates several interconnected processes
involving multiple reaction vessels, pool condensers, heat
exchangers, and separation units. The management has decided to
implement a new process control system to enhance the efficiency,
safety, and productivity of the plant. As part of the training program,
you are conducting a class to educate operators and technicians
about the objectives and requirements of process control systems in
the chemical plant. These questions will help facilitate discussions
and provide a comprehensive understanding of the objectives and
requirements of process control systems in a chemical plant.
 Class activity

1. What are the main objectives of implementing a process control

system in a chemical plant?
2. How does a process control system contribute to enhancing the
efficiency of chemical plant operations?
3. What are the key factors to consider when selecting a process
control system for a chemical plant?
4. What are the primary requirements for a process control system to
ensure the safety of plant operations and personnel?
5. How does a process control system aid in maintaining product
quality and consistency in a chemical plant?
6. What role does real-time monitoring and data acquisition play in
process control systems, and why is it important?
 Solution

1. The main objectives of implementing a process control system in

a chemical plant are to optimize process efficiency, improve
product quality and consistency, enhance safety, reduce waste and
emissions, and maximize productivity and profitability.

2. A process control system contributes to enhancing the efficiency

of chemical plant operations by continuously monitoring and
adjusting process variables such as temperature, pressure, flow
rate, and composition. It enables real-time process optimization,
minimizing deviations from desired setpoints and improving overall
process performance.

3. When selecting a process control system for a chemical plant,

key factors to consider include reliability and robustness, user-
friendliness, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness.
 Solution

4. The primary requirements for a process control system to ensure the safety of
plant operations and personnel include the ability to detect and respond to
abnormal conditions, such as equipment failures or deviations from safe
operating limits, implementation of safety interlocks and emergency shutdown
systems, and compliance with relevant safety regulations and standards.

5. A process control system plays a crucial role in maintaining product quality

and consistency in a chemical plant by closely monitoring and controlling process
variables to ensure that products meet desired specifications. It allows for tight
control over critical parameters, minimizing variations and ensuring consistent
product quality.

6. Real-time monitoring and data acquisition are vital components of process

control systems. They provide operators and engineers with essential
information about process performance, enabling them to make informed
decisions and take timely corrective actions. Real-time data allows for trend
analysis, early detection of anomalies, and optimization of process parameters.
 Classification of variables
The identification of process control variables is crucial in ensuring efficient and
effective operation of industrial processes. By accurately identifying and monitoring
these variables, such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, and composition,
operators can gain valuable insights into the behavior and performance of the
process. This information enables them to make informed decisions, adjust
parameters, and implement corrective actions to maintain desired process
conditions and meet quality and safety standards.
Input variables
They denote the effects of the surroundings on the chemical process.
 Manipulated variable (MV or Controlled variable)
Its value can be adjusted freely by the human operator or a control
mechanism. Assess the affect
Ex) In heated tanks, the amount of heat added(Q) or mass flow
rate(w).
 Disturbance variable (DV)
Its value is not the result of the adjustment by an operator or a control
system.
Ex) In heated tanks, inlet temperature, because we cannot usually
𝐓
control the temperature of inlet water.
𝐢𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭
Output variables
They denote the effect of the process on the surroundings or
downstream processes.
 Measured output variable or Controlled variable (CV)
Its value is known by directly measuring it.
Ex) In heated tanks, outlet temperature.
 Unmeasured output variable
It is not or cannot be measured directly.

𝐓𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐥𝐞𝐭
Example 1 - Question
Assume that inlet temperature and the height of the
liquid changes with time. How can we ensure that T
remains at or near the desired ?

1. Identify and classify the different variables?

2. What is the objective of this system?

3. What are the CV and MV of this system?

 Objective
T=Td
H=hd
e=Td >T Q
E=Td<T Q
 If the process reaches
IF Fi then what will happen to T?????
T decrease Fst will increase, this is a
steady state theres no
description in terms of external disturbances need to change the
external disturbance
Input variables may change with time, not
regularly, but maybe in some interval eg Fi  If there is a change of
coming from an upstream unit so we do not external disturbances
have control over Fi, Ti.
then the process
This is a practical example where the inputs becomes unstable
might change with time. That why we need to
devise a control system

Need to introduce this fact in terms of

disturbance, here the disturbance is
Objective
T= Td
H= hd
e= Td >T Q
E= Td<T Q
• If the process reaches steady
state there's no need to
change the external
disturbance.
• If there is a change of external
disturbances then the process
becomes unstable.
Example 1 - Solution
The heat exchanger is used to heat the process fluid from some inlet
temperature up to a certain desired outlet temperature . The energy
supplied to the process stream comes from the latent heat of
condensation of the steam. In this process we want to maintain the outlet
process temperature at its desired value regardless of any variation in
other variables such as the process stream flow rate or the inlet process
temperature.
One way to accomplish this objective is by measuring the outlet
temperature , comparing it to the desired value called the set point. The
outlet temperature is the measured/ controlled variable. Any deviation
from the set point can be corrected by adjusting the control valve to
change the steam flow to the heat exchanger. The steam flow rate is the
manipulated variable.
Is a strategy Keeping your process at a specific value by changing and input variable

Op- What you want the set point to be based on the best economic conditions,
set points are normally optimized to minimize the costs, maintain safety,
minimize waste generated which can have an impact to the environment
 Water temperature

Comfort level

CV- What is the objective of a set of unit operations eg Distillation column – separate
the impurity, produce a pure product.
 Skin

Comfort level
You and your brain
Flowrate of hot/cold water

Valve position and

hand

If someone flushes
a toilet or opens a
tap in the kitchen
Class exercise

Process? DRIVING A CAR

Controlled variable?

Set point?
Sensors? MV
Actuator:
Disturbances
Class exercise

Process? DRIVING A CAR

Controlled variable? Speed and the position on the road

Set point? speed limit and center of lane

Sensors? speedometer and eyes
MV? gas flow/ tire direction
Actuator: = gas pedal and steering wheel
Disturbances
Classification of the variables
Chapter 2: Classification of Control
Strategies
1. Feedback control
 Feedback Control
The process variable to be controlled is measured and used to adjust
another process variable which can be manipulated.
 Advantage
Corrective action is taken regardless of the source of the disturbance.
 Disadvantage
The controlled variable must deviate from the set point before corrective
action is taken.

Not Perfect Control!

 Classification
Negative feedback ; The desirable situation where the corrective action taken by
the controller tends to move the controlled variable toward set point.
Positive feedback ; The controller tends to make things worse by forcing the
controlled variable farther away from the set point.
2. Feedforward Control
 Feedforward Control
The disturbance variable is measured, and the
measurement is used to manipulate MV.
 Advantages
If all sources of the disturbances are known and these values
can be measured accurately.

 Perfect Control
 Disadvantages
No corrective action for unmeasured disturbances.
 In industrial applications, feed-forward control should
be used in combination with feedback control.
Process Control Example
 Chapter 3: Hardware Elements of
control systems
The process: Physical and chemical process occurs

Measuring instruments/sensors are used to measure MV

Variable Measuring Variable Illustrations

T Thermocouple, Resistant
thermometer
P Manometer, Diaphragm
element
F Orifice meter, venturi

LL Differential pressure cell

C Chromatographic measures
Sensors
Transducers: Cannot be used for control till converted
to physical quantities e.g. (V, A)
Transmission Sensor, controller valve
lines
Amplifiers Very weak few milli-volts

The Measurement signal from

Controllers sensors
Final control Implemented FCE;
element Control Valve, speed
pump, speed
compressor.
Recording Used to visualise the
device plant behaviour through
measurement
 Use of Digital Computers in Process
control
Computers are vital for the efficiency in controlling chemical plants.
Types of computers:

 Direct digital control (DDC): used to receive measurements directly from the
process
 Supervisory computer control: used to coordinate the activities of the DDC
 Scheduling computer control: used to schedule the operation of a plant
(conditions in the market: demand, supply and prices).

61
 Chapter 4: Basic process control systems

Inputs:
Disturbances
Controller Manipulated variables

Setpoint Outputs
Process
Control action Actuator

Controller signal

Process variable
Measurement

62
Regulatory and Servo control operations

Inputs:
Disturbances
Controller Manipulated variables

Setpoint Outputs
Process
Control action Actuator

Controller signal

Process variable
Measurement

63
PROCESS CONTROL TERMINOLOGY
 Process Variables
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or
gas) that can change the manufacturing process in some way.
Common process variables: Flow, Level, Temperature, Density,
pH (acidity or alkalinity), Liquid interface (the relative amounts of
different liquids that are combined in a vessel), Mass,
Conductivity

 Setpoint
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be
maintained, i.e. maintaining temperature of water at 100 0C to
have boiling water
 Measured Variables, Process Variables and manipulated
Variables
The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that
must be kept at the designated setpoint.

Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the

process variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure
flow into and out of a storage tank to determine tank level. In
this scenario, flow is the measured variable, and the process
fluid level is the process variable. The factor that is changed to
keep the measured variable at setpoint is called the
manipulated variable.
 Error
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the
setpoint and can either be positive or negative.

• Magnitude
The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the
values of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude
of error at any point in time compared to the previous error
provides the basis for determining the change in error. The
change in error is also an important value.
 Duration
Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has
existed.

 Rate Of Change
The rate of change is
shown by the slope of the error plot below.
 OFFSET
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the
setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the control
system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even
though the setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5 °C exists.

 LOAD DISTURBANCE
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors
that can affect the process variable. In the temperature control
loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a
load disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the
process fluid.
 CONTROL ALGORITHM
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control
function. Using the temperature control loop example, V in the
equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The
relationship in a control algorithm can be expressed as:
V = f (±e)
Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of much more
complex control loops

 MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control operations that involve human action to make an
adjustment
 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS.
Control operations in which no human intervention is required,
such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a level
controller

 CLOSED CONTROL LOOPS

A closed control loop exists where a process variable is
measured, compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct
any deviation from setpoint.
.
 OPEN CONTROL LOOPS
An open control loop exists where the process variable is not
compared, and action is taken not in response to feedback on
the condition of the process variable but is instead taken without
regard to process variable conditions.
i.e., a water valve may be opened to add cooling water to a process to
prevent the process fluid from getting too hot, based on a pre-set time
interval, regardless of the actual temperature of the process fluid.
 Chapter 5: Control loop
 THREE TASKS
• In the control loops of the process control industry requires three tasks to
occur:
• Measurement
• Comparison
• Adjustment

A level transmitter (LT) measures the level in the tank and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a
controller (LIC). The controller compares the reading to a predetermined value, in this case, the maximum tank
level established by the plant operator, and finds that the values are equal. The controller then sends a signal to the
device that can bring the tank level back to a lower level—a valve at the bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let
some liquid out of the tank.
Example 2 – Question

Example 2 - Solution
A hot water generation process commonly found in plants. The
input to this process is cold water and the output of the process is
hot water. Steam is the resource that provides energy for the
transformation to occur within the heat exchanger plates.
 Example 3 - Question

Example 3 - Solution
A block diagram of a process with a final control element
and sensors to measure the manipulated variable and
process variable. In single loop control systems, the actual
value of the manipulated variable is often not measured,
the value of the process variable is the only concern.
 Example 4 - Question
Consider a house in a cold
climate which is to be
maintained near a desired
temperature by circulating
hot water through a heat
exchanger.

Example 4 - Solution
 Temperature of the room is determined by a thermostat
 This temperature is compared with the desired temperature or range of
temperature
 If the temperature is below than the desired, the furnace and the pump
are turned on; if the temperature is above the furnace and pump are
turned off. The next slide summarises the above information