ACELLULAR

MICROBES:
VIRUSES COVID – 19
✔ Microbes can be divided into those that are truly
cellular (bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa, &
fungi) & those that are acellular (viruses, viroids,
& prions).
✔ Cellular microbes (microorganisms) can be
divided into those that are prokaryotic (bacteria
& archaea) & those that are eukaryotic (algae,
protozoa, & fungi).
✔ Viruses, viroids, & prions are often referred to as
acellular microbes/infectious particles.
 VIRUSES:
Virus is a minuscule (extremely small),
acellular, infectious agent usually having one
or several pieces of nucleic acid - either DNA
or RNA.
Being acellular, viruses lack cytoplasmic
membrane, cytosol & functional organelles.
 VIRUSES
They are NOT capable of metabolic activity
on their own. Instead, once viruses have
invaded a cell, they take control of the cell’s
metabolic machinery to produce more
molecules of viral nucleic acid and viral
proteins, which then assemble into new
viruses.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/12565584/75/images/3/Acellular+and+Cellular+Microbes.jpg
 Properties of Viruses
1. Possess either DNA/RNA, whereas living cells
possess both.
2. Cannot replicate on their own.
3. Unlike cells, they do not divide by binary fission,
mitosis/meiosis.
4. Do not have the genes and enzymes needed for
ATP production.
5. Dependent on the ribosomes, enzymes, &
metabolites of the host cell for protein & nucleic
acid production.
 Comparison of Viruses & Cells
VIRUSES CELLS
Inert macromolecules outside of a cell
but become active inside a cell. Metabolize on their own
Do not divide/grow Divide & Grow
Acellular Cellular
Obligate intracellular parasites Most are free living
Contain either DNA/RNA, w/ few
exceptions, such as Cytomegalovirus &
Mimivirus Contain both DNA & RNA
Genome can be dsDNA, ssDNA,
dsRNA, or ssRNA Genome is dsDNA
Usually ultramicroscopic in size,
ranging from 10 nm to 500 nm 200 nm to 12 cm in diameter
Have a proteinaceous capsid around
genome; some have an envelope Surrounded by a phospholipid membrane &
around the capsid often a cell wall
Replicate in an assembly-line manner
using the enzymes & organelles of a Self- replicating by asexual and/or sexual
host cell means
 VIRUSES
Complete virus particles are called VIROINS.
Most viruses range from 10 to 300 nm in
diameter.
Viruses infect humans, animals, plants, fungi,
protozoa, algae, & bacterial cells.
Some viruses, called ONCOGENIC
VIRUSES/ ONCOVIRUSES - cause specific
types of cancer.
.
 Virus vs. Virion
Virus is a broad general
term for any aspect of the
infectious particle, including:
✔ the infectious or
inactivated virus particle
✔ viral nucleic acid and
protein in the infected cell
Virion is the physical
particle in the
extracellular phase that
is transmitted to new
host cells
Refers to complete
intact virus particle.
 VIRUSES
A typical VIROIN consists of a genome of
either DNA/RNA, surrounded by a CAPSID
(protein coat), which is composed of protein
units called CAPSOMERES.
Some viruses (enveloped viruses) have an
outer envelope composed of lipids &
polysaccharides.
VIRAL NUCLEOCAPSIDS:
The nucleic acid core and the capsid
together are called NUCLEOCAPSID
CLASSIFICATION OF
VIRUSES:

Viruses differ according to:

✔ the type of genetic material they contain,
✔ the kinds of cells they attack,
✔ their size,
✔ the nature of their capsid coat,
✔ their shapes, &
✔ the presence or absence of an envelope.
Viruses are classified by:
1. Genetic material:
✔ Whether DNA/RNA
✔ Whether single-stranded/double stranded
✔ Whether positive-sense/negative sense (for ssRNA
viruses)
2. Shape and size of capsid.
3. Number of capsomeres.
4. Presence/ absence of an envelope.
5. Type of host it infects.
6. Disease it produces.
7. Target cell(s).
8. Immunologic/antigenic properties
 Genetic Material of Viruses:
Whereas the genome of every cell is double-stranded
DNA, the genome of a virus may be either DNA/RNA.
Viruses are primarily categorized and classified based
on the type of genetic material that makes up the viral
genome.
Genome of any particular virus may be either linear
and composed of several molecules of nucleic acid, as
in eukaryotic cells. Or they can be circular & singular,
as in most prokaryotic cells.
Viral genomes are usually smaller than the
genomes of cells.
Viruses: There are four categories of viruses,
based on the type of nucleic acid that they
possess.
1. Double-stranded DNA viruses
2. Single-stranded RNA viruses
3. Single-stranded DNA viruses
4. Double-stranded RNA viruses
Most viral genomes are of the first two types. Most viral
genomes are circular molecules, but some are linear.
POSITIVE SENSE RNA VIRUS:
Type of single-stranded RNA virus whose
genetic material is viral mRNA (sense
strand) that encodes for proteins & thus can
be readily translated into proteins.
 NEGATIVE SENSE RNA VIRUS:
Type of single-stranded RNA virus whose
genetic material is the antisense
(complementary strand of the viral mRNA)
Cannot be readily translated into viral proteins.
 VIRUSES THAT INFECT HUMANS:
SINGLE-STRANDED POSITIVE SENSE RNA:
functions as mRNA

SINGLE-STRANDED NEGATIVE SENSE RNA:

serves as a template for production of mRNA

RETROVIRUS: uses an enzyme called reverse

transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA. The
retrovirus then integrates its viral DNA into the DNA of
the host cell, which allows the retrovirus to replicate.
 Burton’s Microbiology for the

Viruses That Infect Humans Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Astroviridae Astrovirus Gastroenteritis
Caliciviridae Norovirus Gastroenteritis
Hepatitis E virus Hepatitis
Picornaviridae Rhinovirus Common colds
Hepatitis A virus Hepatitis
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
Viruses That Infect Humans 4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Reoviridae Rotavirus Diarrhea
Reovirus Encephalitis
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
Viruses That Infect Humans 4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Togaviridae Rubella virus German measles

Flaviviridae Dengue virus Dengue fever

Zika virus Zika
Hepatitis C virus Hepatitis
Coronaviridae Coronaviruses COVID-19
SARS
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Viruses That Infect Humans Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Rhabdoviridae Lyssavirus (Rabies Rabies
virus)
Paramixoviridae Paramyxovirus Common colds
Respiratory syncytial Croup
virus Hepatitis
Mumps virus Mumps
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
Viruses That Infect Humans 4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Arenaviridae Lymphocytic Meningitis
choriomeningitis virus
Bunyaviridae Hanta virus Pneumonia
Encephalitis
Bunyavirus
Orthomyxovirus Influenza A, B and C Influenza (flu)
 Burton’s Microbiology for the

Viruses That Infect Humans Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Retroviridae Human T lymphotropic Leukemia
virus types
1 and 2
Human AIDS
immunodeficiency virus
types 1 and 2
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Viruses That Infect Humans Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
4-1

Family Representative Disease

Virus
Parvoviridae Parvovirus B19 Erythema infectiosum
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Viruses That Infect Humans Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Adenoviridae Human adenoviruses Respiratory infections
Conjunctivities
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
Viruses That Infect Humans 4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Papillomaviridae Human papilloma Warts
viruses Benign tumors
Cervical and penile
cancers
 Burton’s Microbiology for the
Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
Viruses That Infect Humans 4-1

Family Representative Disease

Viruses
Herpeviridae Herpes simplex virus I Fever blisters
Herpes simplex virus II Genital herpes
Varicella-zoster virus Chickenpox, shingles
Epstein-Barr virus Infectious
mononucleosis
Cytomegaloviruses Birth defects
Viruses That Infect Humans
Burton’s Microbiology for the
Health Sciences, 11th ed, p.45, fig
4-1

Family Representative Disease

Virus
Hepnaviridae Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis
FAMILIES OF HUMAN VIRUSES
FAMILIES OF HUMAN VIRUSES
 Family Strand Type Representative Genera
(Diseases)
DNA VIRUSES
Poxviridae Double Orthopoxvirus (smallpox)
Herpesviridae Double Simplexvirus (Herpes type 1: fever blisters,
respiratory infections, Herpes type 2:genital
infections); Varicellovirus (chicken pox);
Lymphocryptovirus, Epstein-Barr virus
(infectious mononucleosis, Burkitts lymphoma);
Cytomegalovirus (birth defects); Roseolovirus
(roseola)

Papillomaviridae Double Papillomavirus (benign tumors, warts, cervical &

penile cancers)
Polyomaviridae Double Polyomavirus (progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy)
Adenoviridae Double Mastadenovirus (conjunctivitis, respiratory
infections)
Hepadnaviridae Partial single & partial Orthohepadnavirus (hepatitis B)
double
Parvoviridae Single Erythovirus (erythema infectiosum)
 Family Strand Type Representative Genera (Diseases)
RNA VIRUSES
Picornaviridae Single, +a Enterovirus (polio); Hepatovirus (hepatitis A);
Rhinovirus (commo)

Caliciviridae Single, + Norovirus (gastroenteritis)

Astroviridae Single, + Astrovirus (gastroenteritis)
Hepeviridae Single, + Hepevirus (hepatitis E)
Togaviridae Single, + Alphavirus (encephalitis); Rubivirus (rubella)

Flaviviridae Single, + Flavivirus (yellow fever); Japanese encephalitis

virus (encephalitis); Hepacivirus (hepatitis C)

Coronaviridae Single, + Coronavirus (common cold, severe acute

respiratory syndrome)

Retroviridae Single, +, Human T cell leukemia virus (leukemia); Lentivirus

segmented (AIDS)
Orthomyxoviridae Single, -b, Influenza (flu)
segmented
 VIRAL REPLICATION
Viruses cannot reproduce themselves because
✔ they lack the genes for all the enzymes necessary for
replication,
✔ nor do they possess functional ribosomes for protein
synthesis.
Instead, viruses are dependent on their hosts’ enzymes
and organelles to produce new virions.
Once a host cell falls under control of a viral genome, it is
forced to replicate viral genetic material and translate viral
proteins, including viral capsomeres and viral enzymes.
 HOST OF VIRUSES:
✔ Most viruses infect only a particular host’s cells - due to
the precise affinity of viral surface proteins/
glycoproteins for complementary proteins/ glycoproteins
on the surface of the host cell.
✔ Some viruses may be so specific that they infect not
only a particular host but also a particular kind of cell in
that host. (E.g., Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ HIV
specifically attacks helper T lymphocytes in humans)
Some viruses may infect many kinds of cells
in many different hosts.
Viruses may infect archaeal, bacterial, plant,
protozoan, fungal, & animal cells.
A virus that infects bacteria is referred to as a
BACTERIOPHAGE.
 BACTERIOPHAGES:
Viruses that infect bacteria are known as
bacteriophages. Bacteriophages can be classified
based on:
1. their Shape
2. type of nucleic acid
3. events that occur after invasion of the bacterial
cell:
✔ virulent bacteriophages- LYTIC CYCLE – ends with
the destruction of the bacterial cell
✔ temperate bacteriophages
 Lytic Cycle
The virus introduces its genome into a host
cell and initiates replication by hijacking the
host's cellular machinery to make new copies
of the virus.
Once infection is complete, the newly
replicated and assembled virus particles are
released through lysis of the host cell into the
surrounding waters.
 LYTIC PROCESS
1. Attachment - attachment of phage to cell
surface receptor.
2. Penetration – injection of phage DNA into cell.
3. Biosynthesis – synthesis of new phage DNA &
phage proteins.
4. Assembly – assembly of new phage particles.
5. Release – lysis of cell & release of progeny
phage.
 HOSTS OF VIRUSES:

Animal Viruses:
Steps in the multiplication of animal viruses are:
1. Attachment
2. Penetration – the virus enters the host cell
3. Uncoating - viral nucleic acid escapes from the capsid
4. Biosynthesis – synthesis of viral DNA and proteins
5. Assembly – assembly of viral pieces

Animal viruses escape from their host cells either by lysis of

the cell or by budding. Viruses that escape by budding
become enveloped viruses.
THREE MECHANISMS OF ENTRY OF ANIMAL
VIRUSES:
1. Direct Penetration

https://slideplayer.com/slide/14548029/90/images/31/Figure+Three+mechanisms+of+entry+of+animal+viruses..jpg
2. Membrane Fusion

https://slideplayer.com/slide/14548029/90/images/31/Figure+Three+mechanisms+of+entry+of+animal+viruses..jpg
3. Endocytosis
 LATENT VIRUS INFECTIONS
Viral infections in which the virus is able to hide
from a host’s immune system by entering cells
& remaining dormant.
Herpes viral infections are examples. Once
acquired, herpes virus infections (e.g., those
that cause cold sores, genital herpes, and
chickenpox/shingles) never completely go away;
For example, chickenpox may be followed, years
later, by shingles - both the result of the same virus.
 ANTIVIRAL AGENTS

Antibiotics are not effective against viral

infections - this is very important to remember.
Antiviral agents are drugs that are used to
treat viral infections.
These agents interfere with virus-specific
enzymes & virus production by disrupting
critical phases in viral multiplication/ inhibiting
synthesis of viral DNA, RNA, or proteins.
VIROIDS & PRIONS: Smaller & less complex
Infectious particles than viruses.
Viroids: Short, naked fragments of single
stranded RNA, which can interfere w/ the
metabolism of plant cells.
Viroids are transmitted between plants in the
same manner as viruses.
Examples of plant diseases caused by viroids are potato
spindle tuber & citrus exocortis.
Prions: Small infectious proteins that cause fatal
neurologic diseases in animals & humans (e.g.,
Scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy [mad cow
disease], & Creutzfeldt–Jacob disease ).
Of all pathogens, prions are the most resistant
to disinfectants. The mechanism by which
prions cause disease remains a mystery.
 COVID

WHO announces new name for 2019 novel

coronavirus: COVID-19. “CO stands for Corona, VI
stands for Virus, D for Disease,” Ghebreyesus.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) refers
to the illness caused by severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2;formerly called 2019- nCoV)
 COVID
First identified amid an outbreak of respiratory
illness cases in Wuhan City, Hubei Province,
China. Initially reported to the WHO on
December 31, 2019.
On January 30, 2020, the WHO declared the
COVID-19 outbreak a global health emergency.
On March 11, 2020, the WHO declared
COVID-19 a global pandemic.
 COVID TRANSMISSION
Principal mode of transmission is through
exposure to RESPIRATORY DROPLETS
carrying infectious virus (generally within a
space of 6 feet). Other modes of transmission:
✔ contact transmission (e.g., shaking hands)
✔ airborne transmission of droplets that linger
in the air over long distances (usually
greater than 6 feet).
✔ Virus released in respiratory secretions (eg,
during coughing, sneezing, talking) can
infect other individuals via contact w/
mucous membranes.
✔ The virus can persist on surfaces to varying
durations and degrees of infectivity, one
study found that SARS-CoV-2 remained
detectable for up to 72 hours on some
surfaces despite decreasing infectivity over
time.
✔ Asymptomatic persons account for
approximately 40-45% of SARS-CoV-2
infection.
✔ They can transmit infection to others for an
extended period, perhaps more than 14
days.
The duration of viral shedding varies
significantly and may depend on severity.
✔ ranged from 8-37 days, w/ a median of 20 days :
Zhou,F., et.al (Mar, 2020):
✔ a median shedding duration of 31 days (range, 18-
48 days): Zhou B. et. (Apr 2020).
✔ profound immunosuppression (e.g. following
hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation, receiving
cellular therapies) viral shedding may be for at
least 2 months: Aydillo, et.al (Dec 2020)
 SARS-CoV-2
SARS-CoV-2 has also been found in the
semen of men with acute infection, as well
as in some male patients who have
recovered.
 SARS – CoV-2
SARS – CoV – 2 :
• “Coronaviruses belong to the subfamily
Coronavirinae in the family Coronaviridae
of the order Nidovirales.
• Coronavirus particles are spherical with a
diameter of approximately 80 to 160 mm.
The envelope surface SARS – CoV-2
is covered with spike
(S) protein, and the
membrane (M)
proteins and envelope
(E) proteins are
located among the S
proteins.
 SARS – CoV-2
The genomic RNA and phosphorylated
nucleocapsid (N) protein form a spiral
nucleocapsid, which is located within the
envelope.

The coronavirus genome is comprised of a

single stranded positive-strand RNA