Nitrogen fixation and soil fertility: Certain bacteria are helpful in the fixation of atmospheric

nitrogen. Azotobacter and Clostridium are present in the soil and help in nitrogen fixation. Species
of Rhizobium bacteria are present in the root nodules of leguminous plants, and they increase the soil’s nitrogen
content by fixing up atmospheric nitrogen. The process is known as symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
Several cyanobacteria also help in nitrogen fixation. Nostoc, Anabaena, etc., possess heterocysts with nitrogenase
enzymes and fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic conditions. Nostoc is associated with the coralloid roots
of Cycas and helps in this process. Anabaena azollae is associated with water fern, Azolla, and helps in nitrogen
fixation in paddy fields.
Role in Nitrogen Cycling: Nitrification is one of the most critical steps in the nitrogen cycle, performed by
nitrifying bacteria. Nitrifying bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include the genera Nitrosomonas,
Nitrococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrobacillus, etc. These bacteria get their energy by the oxidation of inorganic nitrogen
compounds.
The denitrifying bacteria, like Pseudomonas denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans, transform the nitrates to
free atmospheric nitrogen.
Biogas Production: Biogas is a standard domestic and industrial fuel, which
contains 50−60%50−60% methane, 30−40%30−40% carbon dioxide, 0−3%0−3% Sulphur compounds, and
traces of other gases like hydrogen, CO2 nitrogen, etc.
1. In a biogas digester, cattle dung is used to obtain gas (gobar gas) in the following steps:

a. Hydrolysis is the initial step that needs anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium, Pseudomonas, etc.
b. Acidogenesis is the second step, in which the facultatively anaerobic, acidogenic bacteria and obligate
anaerobic organisms help convert the simple organic material into acids like formic acid, acetic acid, etc.
c. Methanogenesis is the last step, in which anaerobic Methanogenic bacteria
like Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, etc., convert organic acids into Methane.
Sewage Treatment: Sewage is agricultural and domestic waste products that pollute the water. The treatment to
remove such waste is partially chemical, biological treatment.
a. Secondary treatment is the biological treatment, which reduces the BOD significantly. Aerobic bacteria are
used in this process.
b. Tertiary treatment is done once there is a reduction of BOD in the settling tank. Mainly Methanogen s grow
anaerobically and produce biogas.
Disadvantages
1. Spoilage of Foodstuff: Cooked food, fruits, vegetables, butter, fish and meat are spoiled by bacteria, Certain
bacteria like Salmonella typhimurium and Clostridium botulinum cause a severe type of food poisoning when
bacteria-contaminated food is consumed.
2. Reduction of Soil Fertility – Denitrification: The denitrifying bacteria decompose nitrogen compound into
free nitrogen.
3. Animal Diseases: Bacteria cause tuberculosis in cattle, anthrax in sheep, cholera in chickens and pneumonia
in horses, sheep and goats.
4. Human Diseases:
Disease Bacterium
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Diarrhoea Bacillus coli
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae
Plague Pasteurella pestis
Tetanus Clostridium tetani
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
5. Plant Diseases: Several plant diseases are induced by bacteria. They cause leaf spots, soft rots, vascular
diseases, and bacterial galls. Xanthomonas citri causes citrus canker.
6. Bioweapons: A bioweapon or biological weapon is a device that carries and delivers a disease -causing
biological agent (like bacteria, viruses, genetically altered organisms) or a toxin derived from it to the target
organism. Some of the bioweapons can cause anthrax, smallpox, plague and gastroenteritis. Bacillus anthracis is
the causative agent of anthrax, Vibrio cholera of gastroenteritis and Yersinia pestis of plague. Botulinum toxin
from Clostridium botulinum is used to cause fatal food poisoning. Some of these agents have already been used.
For example, anthrax bacterium was sent through letters in 2001.2001. Bioweapons are low-cost weapons and
cause far more casualties than conventional weapons.
 Virus
Definition: The name is from a Latin word meaning venom “slimy liquid” or “poison.” Mature, infectious
virus called Virion. All true viruses contain nucleic acid—either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
or RNA (ribonucleic acid)—and protein. Virus, ultramicroscopic ,infectious agent of small size and
simple composition that can multiply only in living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria.
General Characteristics:
• Viruses are minute infectious agents that can be seen only with aid of the electron microscope.
• 10 to 100 times smaller than most bacterial cells size 20 to 300 nm ( 0.02 to 0.3 um)
• They consist of either DNA or RNA not both together.
• They are wrapped (covered) in a protein coat.
• Viruses are simply small packets genes (less than 10 to 100 genes) wrap ped in a protein coat.
• The protein coat protects the genes outside the host cell.
• The structurally mature, infectious viral particle is called virion.
• They are incapable of independent growth in artificial media.
• They can replicate only in animal, plant or microbial cells.
• Viruses therefore are referred to as obligate intracellular parasites and represent the ultimate
complexity in parasitism
• They are actually “take over” the genetic machinery of the host cell.
• “viruses are noncellular, infectious, entities whose genomes are either DNA or RNA. They replicate
only in living cells.”
• Thus virus are viewed as existing at the borderline between living and nonliving .
• it is preferable to use terms such as functionally active and inactive rather than ‘alive” or “de ad”.
Morphology:
1. Viruses are tiny and smaller in its size, ranging between 30-
50 nm.
2. Viruses do not contain cells and usually lack a cell wall but
are surrounded by a protective protein coating called the capsid.
3. It can be seen as a genetic element and is characterized by
the combined evolution of the virus and the host. They contain
either RNA or DNA as the genetic material.
4. The viral genome structure is packed in a capsulated
symmetric protein.
5. The protein associated with nucleic acid (also known as
nucleoprotein) produces the nucleocapsid with the genome.
6. Animal viruses with helical capsid included causative agents
of measels, mumps, influenza and rabies.
7. In these viruses the capsid is enclosed by a lipoprotein
envelope with radially projecting spikes.

Classification of Viruses
Viruses can be classified primarily on their phenotypic characteristics, core content, chemical composition,
capsid structure, size, shape, modes of replication and other viral genome structures.
Classification based on the presence of nucleic acid :
DNA virus:
The virus, having DNA as its genetic material. There are two different types of DNA virus
Single-stranded (ss) DNA virus: e.g. Picornaviruses, Parvovirus, etc.
Double-stranded (ds) DNA virus: e.g. Adenovirus, Herpes virus, etc.
RNA virus
The virus, having RNA as its genetic material. There are two different types of RNA virus
Double-stranded (ds) RNA virus: e.g. Reovirus, etc.
Single-stranded (ss) RNA virus. It is further classified into two Positive sense RNA (+RNA) and negative
sense RNA (-RNA). Poliovirus, Hepatitis A, Rabies virus, Influenza virus are examples of single-stranded
RNA virus.
Classification based on the structure or symmetry
Viruses come in different shapes, from basic helical and icosahedral shapes to more intricate ones. The
classification based on different shapes and symmetry of viruses are as follows:
1. Complex virus. E.g Poxvirus
2. Radial symmetry virus. E.g.Bacteriophage
3. Cubical or icosahedral symmetry shaped virus. E.g. Reovirus, Picornavirus
4. Rod or Spiral shaped or helical symmetry virus. E.g. Paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus
Classification based on the replication properties and site of replication
Here, viruses invade into the host cell, where it replicates and assembly within the cell organelles.
1. Replication within the cytoplasm of the host cell. E.g. All RNA viruses except the Influenza virus.
2. Replication within the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the host cell. E.g. Influenza virus, Poxvirus, etc.
3. Replication within the nucleus of the host cell. All DNA viruses except Pox virus.
4. Replication of the virus through the double-stranded DNA intermediate. E.g. All DNA viruses,
Retrovirus and some tumour causing RNA virus.
5. Replication of the virus through a single-stranded RNA intermediate. E.g. All RNA viruses except
Reovirus and tumour-causing RNA viruses.
Classification based on the host range:
Based on the type of host, there are four different types of viruses:
Animal viruses: These viruses infect by invading the cells of animals, including humans. Prominent examples
of animal viruses include the influenza virus, mumps virus, rabies virus, poliovirus, Herpes virus, etc.
Plant viruses: These viruses infect plants by invading the plant cells. Replication of plant viruses is obligate
and does not happen without a host. Well-known examples of plant virus include the potato virus, tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV), beet yellow virus, and turnip yellow virus, cauliflower mosaic virus, etc.
Bacteriophage: The virus which infects bacterial cells is known as bacteriophage. There are many varieties
of bacteriophages, such as DNA virus, MV-11, RNA virus, λ page, etc.
Insect virus: The virus which infects insects is known as Insect virus, also called the viral pathogen of insects.
These viruses are considered as a powerful biocontrol agent in the landscape of modern agriculture.
Ascovirus virions and Entomopox virus, are best examples for insect virus.
Classification based on the mode of transmission:
1. Airborne infections – Transmission of the virus through the air into the respiratory tract. E.g. Swine
flu, and Rhinovirus.
2. Fecal oral route – Transmission of the virus through the contaminated water or food.
E.g. Hepatitis A virus, Poliovirus, Rotavirus.
3. Sexually transmitted diseases – Transmission of the virus through sexual contacts with the infected
person. E.g. Retrovirus, human papillomavirus, etc.
4. Transfusion-transmitted infections- Transmission of the virus through the blood transfusion.
E.g. Hepatitis B virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, etc.
5. Zoonoses -Transmission of the virus through the biting of infected animals, birds, and insects to
human. E.g. Rabies virus, Alpha virus, Flavivirus, Ebola virus, etc.
Virus capsids
The capsid, or protein shell, of a virus is made up of many protein molecules (not ju st one big, hollow one).
The proteins join to make units called capsomers, which together make up the capsid. Capsid proteins are
always encoded by the virus genome, meaning that it’s the virus (not the host cell) that provides instructions
for making them. Capsids come in many forms, but they often take one of the following shapes (or a
variation of these shapes):
1. Icosahedral – Icosahedral capsids have twenty faces, and are named after the twenty -sided shape
called an icosahedron.
2. Filamentous – Filamentous capsids are named after their linear, thin, thread-like appearance. They
may also be called rod-shaped or helical.
3. Head-tail –These capsids are kind of a hybrid between the filamentous and icosahedral shapes. They
basically consist of an icosahedral head attached to a filamentous tail.
 Viral Reproduction
Directions: Study the Lytic Cycle Diagram. It shows the steps of the lytic cycle, starting with
a bacteriophage attachment to a host cell. The steps shown in the diagram are also outlined in the Lytic Cyle
Overview.
Lytic Cycle Overview:
1. Attachment: Virus attaches to the
host cell.
2. Entry: Genetic material is injected
into the host cell.
3. Replication: The virus takes over
the cell's metabolism, causing the
creation of new proteins and nucleic
acids by the host cell's organelles.
4. Assembly: Proteins and nucleic
acids are assembled into new viruses.
5. Release: Virus enzymes cause the
cell to burst and viruses are released
from the host cell. These new viruses
can infect other cells.

Directions : Study the Lysogenic Cycle Diagram. It shows the steps of the lysogenic cycle, starting with
bacteriophage attachment to a host cell. The steps shown in the diagram are also outlined in
the Lysogenic Cyle.
Lysogenic Cycle Overview:
1. Attachment: Virus attaches
to the host cell.
2. Entry: Genetic material is
injected into the host cell.
3. Integration: Viral DNA
integrates into the host cell's
genome.
4. Replication (lysogenic
cycle): When the host cell
replicates, viral DNA is copied
along with host cell DNA. Each
new daughter cell is infected
with the virus.
5. Induction: When the
infected cells are exposed to
certain environmental
conditions, viral DNA is
activated and enters the lytic
cycle.
6. Replication (lytic cycle):
The virus takes over the cell's
metabolism, causing the creation of new proteins and nucleic acids by the host cell's organelles.
7. Assembly: Proteins and nucleic acids are assembled into new viruses.
8. Release: Virus enzymes cause the cell to burst and viruses are released from the host cell. These new viruses
can infect other cells.
Economic Importance of Virus
Beneficial Effect of Viruses
• Viruses are used in preparation of sera and vaccines to be used against diseases like rabeis, polio,
hepatitis B, papillomavirus, etc.
• The multiplication of viruses in bactereial cells is also utilized in the production of antibodies.
• It is used in various pharmaceutical products such as proteins, vaccine, antigens and antibodies.
• Viruses are also used in biological studies.
• They are broadly used in research in the field of genetic engineering, molecular biology and medicine
due to their capacity to fast reproduction and plainness structure.
• Viruses are used in bacteriophage therapy.
• In the life science, it plays an important role to understand the basic mecha nisms of molecular genetics.
• It is used for gene therapy. In this case, viral genes are replaced by the human gene.
• Viruses are used in biological control by human in eradicating pests like insects (by NPV) and in
controlling the population of organisms such as rabbits by inducing viral infection.
• The viruses also played a central role in the early evolution, before the diversification of bacterial,
archaea and eukaryotes, at the time of the last universal common ancestor of life on earth. Virus es are
still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on earth.
• Viruses are also used in aquatic environment to recycling carbon.
• About one million of viruses are found in one teaspoon of seawater.
• Among them, majority are bacteriophages.
• They are not harmful to animals and plants and they play an important role to regulate the freshwater
and saltwater ecosystem by destroying bacteria and recycling carbon in the aquatic ecosystem.

Harmful Effects of Viruses

• A vast number of viruses cause human and animal diseases.
• Some viruses are epidemic which spreads rapidly to many people and some viruses are pandemic
which spread diseases worldwide. COVID-19 (corona virus disease) is very life threatening disease
that already has taken the lives of nearly few lakhs people worldwide.
• In 2003, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) also took the lives of nearly 800 people
worldwide.
• Besides, a vast number of viruses cause plant diseases as rice tungro baciliform virus (RTBV), tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV), tomato/papaya ring spot virus, tomato leaf curl, potato leaf roll virus, etc.

Viruses Name of diseases Host

Influenza virus Influenza Human
Herpes virus Herpes Human
Hepatitis A, B, C, D, & E virus Jaundice Human
HIV AIDS Human
Variola virus Small pox Human
Rubeola virus Measles Human
Polio virus Polio Human
Rabies virus Rabies Human
Yellow fever virus Yellow fever Human
Flavi virus Dengue Human
Vaccinia virus Cow pox Cow
Foot and mouth virus Foot and mouth disease Cow
Tobacco mosaic virus Tobacco mosaic disease Tobacco
Bean mosaic virus Bean mosaic disease Bean
Tungro virus Tungro disease of rice Rice
Bushy stant virus Bushy stant disease of tomato Tomato
Bancy top virus Bancy top disease of banana Banana