UTILITARIANISM

Introduction
• Utilitarianism is a theory of morality that advocates actions that foster
happiness or pleasure and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or
harm. When directed toward making social, economic, or political
decisions, a utilitarian philosophy would aim for the betterment of
society as a whole.
• Utilitarianism would say that an action is right if it results in the
happiness of the greatest number of people in a society or a group.
Key Philosophers
• Utilitarianism is a tradition of ethical philosophy that is associated
with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, two late 18th and 19th-
century British philosophers, economists, and political thinkers.
Utilitarianism holds that an action is right if it tends to promote
happiness and wrong if it tends to produce sadness, or the reverse of
happiness—not just the happiness of the actor but that of everyone
affected by it.
Jeremy Bentham
• Jeremy Bentham (born February 15, 1748, London, England—died
June 6, 1832, London) English philosopher, economist,
and theoretical jurist, the earliest and chief expounder of utilitarianism.
• The great work on which he had been engaged for many years, An
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, was
published in 1789. In this book he defined the principle of utility as
“that property in any object whereby it tends to produce pleasure,
good or happiness, or to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil
or unhappiness to the party whose interest is considered.”
Bentham’s Thoughts
• Bentham’s thoughts on utilitarianism included the role of government
and the legislation created by government.
• To determine the ‘true good of the community’ Bentham considers
the concept of utilitarianism as the required goal of government as
well as the goal of legislation. Utility, ‘or interest of a community’,
according to Bentham is an “an abstract term” based on the notions of
good and evil through recognition that “evil is pain, or the cause of
pain’ and that “good is pleasure, or the cause of pleasure”. Utility is
seen as the total sum of the happiness based on the presence of
pleasure or the absence of pain, of the members of the community.
Human Nature
• For Bentham, morals and legislation can be described scientifically,
but such a description requires an account of human nature. Just as
nature is explained through reference to the laws of physics, so human
behavior can be explained by reference to the two primary motives of
pleasure and pain; this is the theory of psychological hedonism.
• Bentham believed that “Nature has placed mankind under the
governance of two masters, pain and pleasure” and that actions should
be judged morally right or wrong according to whether or not they
tend to maximize pleasure and minimize pain among those affected by
them.
• When Bentham (1789) discussed pleasures and pains he identified two
categories: simple pleasures, such as pleasures of riches and good
reputation, and simple pains, such as pains of mal-address and pains of
bad dishonor. These two categories may be further broken down into
four classes of pleasures and pain; physical; moral; political and
religious. It is the knowledge of these classes of pains and pleasures,
upon which legislation should be based – “the sole object of the
legislator is to increase pleasure and to prevent pains; and for this
purpose he ought to be well acquainted with their respective values”
 Hedonism
• The term “hedonism,” from the Greek word ἡδονή (hēdonē) for
pleasure, refers to several related theories about what is good for us,
how we should behave, and what motivates us to behave in the way
that we do. All hedonistic theories identify pleasure and pain as the
only important elements of whatever phenomena they are designed to
describe. Philosophical hedonists tend to focus on hedonistic theories
of value, and especially of well-being of an individual.
Hedonistic Utilitarianism
• A utilitarian theory which assumes that the rightness of an action
depends entirely on the amount of pleasure it tends to produce and the
amount of pain it tends to prevent. Bentham's utilitarianism is
hedonistic. Although he describes the good not only as pleasure, but also
as happiness, benefit, advantage, etc., he treats these concepts as more
or less synonymous, and seems to think of them as reducible to
pleasure. John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism, also described
as hedonistic, differs importantly from Bentham's in taking some
pleasures to be higher than other ones, so that when considering the
values of the consequences of an action, not only the quantity but also
the quality of pleasure has to be considered. This complicates the
summing up, or may even make it impossible."
Bentham’s Art and Science
• Bentham believed that law and public policy should be determined
and applied in accordance with science and utility. Bentham
envisioned that science should serve utility as a means or instrument
for the art of developing and implementing law and public policy.
Bentham understood science as knowledge in the field of thought,
and art as practice or performance in the field of action.
By the mid 1770’s, first as a student and later as a practicing attorney,
Bentham had encountered the then existing science of law. According
to Bentham, the science of law needed to be reformed, or “a new
science” created, in order to benefit the welfare of mankind.
• For Bentham, knowledge “is termed science” and practice “is termed art.”
• On Bentham’s view, “the great and universal end to which all art, all science,
all language, is, or ought to be directed” was the “public welfare.” Accordingly,
Bentham distinguished between art and science in terms of their value in
contributing to the public welfare. For Bentham, the value of science “consists in
its subserviency to art.”
• For Bentham, science was knowledge in the field of thought, and art was
practice or performance in the field of action. Bentham envisioned
that science (knowledge) should serve as a “means” or instrument for directing
the art (practice) of performing acts. The value of art (practice) in the field of
action was greater and ranked higher than the value of science (knowledge) in
the field of thought in relation to producing consequences of “pain or pleasure.”
Utilitarianism and Consequentialism
• For Bentham, only consequences mattered. Actions are to be judged
strictly on the basis of how their outcomes affect general utility.
• Utilitarianism is a species of consequentialism, the general doctrine
in ethics that actions (or types of action) should be evaluated on the
basis of their consequences.
• Consequentialism is a theory that says whether something is good or
bad depends on its outcomes. This basic form of consequentialism
holds an action as ethical if and only if it produces more
beneficial/pleasure-causing outcomes than negative/pain-causing ones.
• Utilitarianism and other consequentialist theories are in opposition
to egoism, the view that each person should pursue his or her own
self-interest, even at the expense of others, and to any ethical theory
that regards some actions (or types of action) as right or wrong
independently of their consequences. Utilitarianism also differs from
ethical theories that make the rightness or wrongness of an action
dependent upon the motive of the agent—for, according to the
utilitarian, it is possible for the right thing to be done from a bad
motive. Utilitarians may, however, distinguish the aptness of praising
or blaming an agent from whether the action was right.
Rule Utilitarianism And Act Utilitarianism
• There are two broad areas of utilitarianism; rule-utilitarianism which is based
on identifying the “best rule” and the best action which conforms with the best
rule; and act-utilitarianism where “the value of the consequences of the
particular act counts when determining whether the act is right”. Bentham’s
focus on utilitarianism was the moral worth of actions is determined solely by
their consequences and as such is more appropriately defined as act-
utilitarianism. From this brief explanation of utilitarianism it is possible to link
the principle of utilitarianism to the notion of public interest which inturn is the
rationale for improving the level of public sector financial accountability.
• There is a difference between rule and act utilitarianism. The act utilitarian
considers only the results or consequences of the single act while the rule
utilitarian considers the consequences that result of following a rule of conduct .
• Both act Utilitarians and rule Utilitarians agree that our overall aim in evaluating actions
should be to create the best results possible, but they differ about how to do that.
• Example:
• Someone goes to the doctor. The person is ill, experiences pain and dysfunction. The
doctor performs a series of test and examinations. The person returns to the doctor's office
with diagnosis and the doctor is aware that the tests all show that the person has a disease
that is incurable and life threatening. In fact even under the most aggressive treatment
option there is a survival rate of less than 15% for two years. The doctor is considering
what would be GOOD to tell the person. Should the person know the truth or should the
person be told something other than the truth? Which is better? Which is the right thing
to do? What would be GOOD to do? The act utilitarian might calculate that in telling the
truth there will be a great deal of pain and hardly any pleasure at all. The person will be
upset, their family will be upset, the doctor will be upset in informing the ill person that
there is nothing that the doctor can do to alter their condition. On the other hand if the
doctor makes up a story concerning the diagnosis that is not true but that gives the ill
person more time to enjoy life before the illness makes it obvious that the end is near, well
then the results are different. The family and friends of the person have some more time
with that person to enjoy things instead of being morose and depressed. So the Act
Utilitarian might calculate that the GOOD is to lie.
• The Rule Utilitarian would need to consider what would the long term
consequences be if doctors were to lie to those who come to them and
have life threatening, incurable illnesses. The rule utilitarian might
calculate that people would no longer be able to trust their doctors and
this would break down the confidence they need for their therapies to be
effective. The Rule utilitarian might calculate that there is far more harm
in lying and so the GOOD is to tell the truth. The difference is that the
Act Utilitarian measures the consequences of a Single Act. The Rule
Utilitarian measures the consequences of the act repeated over and over
again through time as if it were to be followed as a RULE whenever
similar circumstances arise.
• The idea behind Rule Utilitarianism is that whenever you are in a
situation and have alternatives you calculate the utility to be produced by
adopting a course of action (rule) which would produce the greatest
utility in the long run if it were followed every time that situation arose.
Bentham's concept of utilitarianism and
Public Policy
• Bentham believed that utilitarianism could be used to guide political and social thought,
arguing that public policies should be evaluated based on their ability to promote the
greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. For example, he believed that laws
and policies should be designed to reduce poverty, promote public health, and increase
access to education, as these measures would improve overall well-being.
• Bentham's utilitarianism had a significant influence on political and social thought in
the 19th and 20th centuries. Many of his ideas, such as the importance of democratic
participation, the need for legal reform, and the emphasis on the public good, continue
to shape debates in contemporary political philosophy. Bentham's focus on the
importance of empirical evidence and reason also helped to lay the groundwork for
modern social science and economics. However, utilitarianism has also been criticized
for its focus on maximizing happiness, which some argue neglects the importance of
individual rights and freedoms."
Bentham's concept of "the greatest
happiness for the greatest number,"
• Bentham's concept of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" is the cornerstone of
his theory of utilitarianism. It refers to the idea that the moral value of an action or policy
should be judged based on its ability to promote the overall happiness of the majority of
people affected by it. This means that the goal of society should be to maximize the total
amount of happiness and minimize the total amount of suffering.
• Bentham's version of utilitarianism is sometimes referred to as act utilitarianism, as it
focuses on the moral evaluation of individual actions. According to Bentham, the moral
worth of an action should be judged based on the amount of happiness it produces,
regardless of the intentions or motives of the person performing the action. In other words,
an action is morally right if it leads to the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest
number of people.
• Bentham's concept of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" differs from other
utilitarian theories in several ways. For example, some earlier utilitarian thinkers, such as
Francis Hutcheson and William Paley, believed that moral actions are those that are in
accordance with the principles of natural law or the will of God. Bentham, on the other hand,
rejected the idea of natural law and believed that morality should be based solely on the goal
of maximizing happiness.
Bentham's ideas on animal welfare and
rights
• "In Bentham's time, the prevailing attitude towards animals was that they existed
solely for human use and did not have rights or interests of their own. Animals were
often subjected to cruel treatment and exploitation without regard for their welfare.
However, Bentham's ideas on animal welfare and rights were quite different from this
prevailing attitude.
• Bentham argued that animals should be included in the circle of moral consideration
because they are capable of feeling pleasure and pain. He believed that animals, like
humans, have an interest in avoiding pain and seeking pleasure, and that their suffering
should be taken seriously. Bentham wrote in his work "Introduction to the Principles of
Morals and Legislation" that, "The question is not, Can they reason? nor Can they
talk? but, Can they suffer?“
• Bentham's ideas on animal welfare and rights were radical for his time, as they
challenged the widely held belief that animals were inferior beings without moral
value.
Bentham's Panopticon and how did it
represent his ideas on prison reform?
• "Bentham's panopticon was a design for a prison that would allow for constant
surveillance of inmates by a central observer. The prison was designed as a circular
building with cells arranged around the perimeter and a central observation tower in
the middle. The cells were arranged in a way that allowed the observer to see into
each cell without being seen by the inmates. Bentham believed that the constant
surveillance would create a sense of "invisible omniscience" that would deter
inmates from misbehaving.
• Bentham saw the panopticon as a solution to the problems of overcrowding and
inhumane conditions in traditional prisons. He believed that the panopticon would be
more efficient and cost-effective than traditional prisons because it would require
fewer guards and could accommodate more inmates in a smaller space. He also
believed that the panopticon would be more humane because it would provide
inmates with opportunities for education and rehabilitation.
• However, the panopticon also represented Bentham's broader concerns about social
control and the role of the state in regulating individual behavior. Bentham saw the
panopticon as a symbol of the ideal society, in which individuals would be
constantly monitored and regulated for the greater good. The panopticon has been
interpreted as a reflection of Bentham's utilitarian philosophy, which emphasizes
the importance of maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering through social
and political institutions.
• Although the panopticon was never fully implemented as a prison design, it had a
significant impact on the development of modern prison architecture and the
philosophy of punishment. Bentham's ideas about prison reform helped to inspire a
movement toward more humane and rehabilitative forms of punishment, and his
vision of the panopticon continues to influence contemporary debates about
surveillance, privacy, and social control."
Analyze the influence of Bentham's ideas on the
development of modern democratic societies.
• "Bentham's ideas have had a significant impact on the development of modern democratic
societies, particularly in the areas of law, government, and social policy. Here are some examples
of how Bentham's ideas have influenced modern democracies:
• Law: Bentham's ideas on legal reform focused on the need for clear and consistent laws that
were easy to understand and administer. He advocated for the codification of laws, which would
make them more accessible to the public and reduce the power of judges. This idea has been
widely adopted in modern legal systems, with many countries having a written constitution or a
comprehensive legal code that sets out the rules and procedures of the legal system.
• Government: Bentham believed that the purpose of government was to promote the greatest
happiness of the greatest number of people. He advocated for democratic governance and the
idea that all citizens should have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. These ideas
have been influential in the development of modern democracies, with many countries adopting
democratic systems of government that allow citizens to participate in decision-making through
free and fair elections.
• Social policy: Bentham's utilitarian philosophy emphasized the importance of maximizing
happiness and minimizing suffering through social and political institutions. This idea has
had a significant impact on the development of social policies in modern democracies, with
many governments adopting policies aimed at improving the welfare of their citizens.
Examples of such policies include universal healthcare, public education, and social
welfare programs.
• Human rights: Bentham's ideas on human rights were ahead of his time, and his emphasis
on individual liberty and freedom has influenced the development of modern human rights
frameworks. His ideas on animal welfare and rights have also influenced modern thinking
on animal rights and welfare.
• Overall, Bentham's ideas have contributed significantly to the development of modern
democratic societies. His ideas on law, government, social policy, and human rights have
influenced the way we think about democracy and the role of the state in promoting the
welfare of its citizens."