Solid state physics

• Lecture (2)
Nearly free electron model
Prof. Dr. Wisam J. Aziz
 Contents
• Free electron model.
• Nearly free electron.
• Kronig - Penney model.
• Tight-binding models.
• Band theory.
 Free electron model
• The free electrons model is assumes that the
electrons are weakly bonded to their atoms
and move within the metal freely without
being affected by the presence of atoms of
matter and not interact with crystal ions. In
another expression the free electron model is
a simple model for the behavior of valence
electrons in a metallic solid.
• Free electron model was developed by Arnold
Sommerfeld who combined the classical Drude
model with quantum mechanical Fermi - Dirac
statistics and hence it is also known as the
Drude-Sommerfeld model.
• In the free electron model, there is neither
lattice, nor electron-electron interaction, but it
gives good result on electron specific heat,
electric and thermal conductivities
• Free electron model is most accurate for alkali
metals
 Free Electron Model

Some successes:
1. electrical conductivity σ
2. heat capacity =n
3. thermal conductivity Q=
Successes of Free Electron Model
• Temperature dependence of Heat Capacity
• paramagnetic (Pauli) susceptibility
• Ratio of thermal and electrical conductivities (Lorentz
number)
• Magnitudes of heat capacities and Hall effect in simple
metals
Failures of free electron model
• Heat capacities and Hall effect of many metals are wrong
• Hall effect can be positive
• Does not explain why mean free paths can be so long
• Does not explain why some materials are metals, some
insulators and some are semiconductors
Nearly free electron model
In solid state physics, the nearly free electron
model (or NFE model) is a quantum
mechanical model of physical properties
of electron that can move almost freely through the
crystal lattice of a solid. The model is closely
related to the more conceptual empty lattice
approximation.
• Simple approximation: treat electrons as free to move
within the crystal

• Atomic s-electrons are delocalized due to overlap of outer

orbits.

• Crystal looks like positive ion cores of charge + e

embedded in a sea of conduction electrons

• Conduction electrons can interact with each other and ion

cores but these interactions are weak
 Nearly free electron
The origin of energy gap in nearly free electron
• The two standing waves and pile up the electrons at
different regain so the two waves have different
values of potential energy in the filed of ion cour of
the lattice.
• = exp() + exp() = 2cos() .
• = exp() exp() = 2isin() .
 Nearly free electron

The electron constriction for standing waves 𝜓(+) and 𝜓(−) and of traveling waves.
The different between Free electron and nearly
free electron
 Comparison
Nearly free e-’s + pseudopotential Tight-binding
• Electrons nearly free
• Wave functions approximated by •
plane waves
• Electrons in conduction band
are delocalized, so can be
approximated well by nearly free
electrons
. e-’s tightly bound to nuclei
Linear combination of atomic
wave functions
• Valence electrons are
concentrated mainly in the
bonds and so they retain more
of their atomic character.
Nearly free electron
Kronig - Penney model
 Tight-binding models
• Tight-binding models are effective tools to
describe the motion of electrons in solids.
Here, we assume that the system is a discrete
lattice and electrons can only stay on the
lattice site. The kinetic energy is included by
allowing electrons to hop from one site to
another.
 Band theory
• Band theory suppose the crystal of matter have two bands:-

(1) Valance band: contain valance electrons, and it never

be empty.

(2) Conduction band: contain conduction electrons.

And between them hole or gap called:

*Forbidden energy gap. “Its size depends on the type of
material conductive, semiconductor or insulating”
 Band theory
• Valance band:- Is the last envelope of the
atom, which contains the electrons called
valence electrons.

• Conduction band:- It is located above the

Valance band and separated by the Forbidden
energy gap, which contains the electrons
called conduction electrons.
 Band Diagram
Conduction
Allow band
2k 2 1 1  d 2E 
E  2 2  ed
2m * m *   dk  state
s
Forbidd
en
band
gap
Allow
ed Valence
state band
s
Band theory
 Band theory
• Band theory classified the matter the types:

• 1. insulator, forbidden gap ≥ 6 eV

• 2. semiconductor, forbidden gap (0.1-6 eV)
• 3. conductor, forbidden gap≤ 0.1 eV