Notes Water Supply Engineering

Water Supply Engineering Third Year/First Part
CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
1. Importance of Water
 Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their
food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water.
 Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in
order to thrive.
 Good sanitation cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system.
 Man needs water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and washing.
 Water maintains an ecological balance – balance in the relationship between living
things and environment in which they live.
2. Definition of Types of Water
1. Pure and Impure Water
 Pure water contains only 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. It is not good for
health as pure water does not contain essential minerals required for human health.
 Impure water, besides 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen, contains other elements.
2. Potable and Wholesome Water
Potable water is water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low risk of
immediate or long-term harm.
Water that is not harmful for human beings is called wholesome water. It is neither chemically
pure nor contains harmful matters to human health. Requirements of wholesome water:
i. It should be free from radioactive substance, microorganism, disease causing bacteria,

objectionable dissolved gases, harmful salts, objectionable minerals and other
poisonous metals.
ii. It should be colourless, and sparkling which may be accepted by public.
iii. It should be tasty, odour-free, soft, cool and cheap in cost.
iv. It shouldn’t corrode pipes.
v. It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it remains fresh.
3. Polluted and Contaminated Water
 Contamination means containing harmful matter. It is always polluted and harmful for
use. Water consisting of microorganisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes, large
numbers of pathogens that cause diseases is called contaminated water.
 Pollution is synonymous to contamination but is the result of contamination. Polluted
water contains substances unfit or undesirable for public health or domestic purpose.
Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 1

Two broad categories of water pollution: a) Point Source b) Non-point Source
a) Point Source: occurs when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body
of water. E.g. pipe from an industrial facility emitted directly into a body of water.
b) Nonpoint Source: delivers pollutants through transport or environmental charge. E.g.
fertilizer from a farm field carried into a stream by rain.
1.3 Historical Development of Water Supply System
What is Water Supply System?
Water Supply System is a network of pipelines of various sizes with control valves for carrying
water to all streets and supplying water to the consumers.
Water Supply System
Continuous Intermittent
- Water is available 24 - Water is supplied for
hours a day and few hours every day
seven days a week. or alternate days.
Historical Development
 Most of the historical community settlements throughout the world were made near
springs, lakes and rivers from where water for drinking and irrigation purposes was
obtained.
 In the ninth century, few important water supply structures were constructed by the
Moors in Spain. In the 12th century, small aqueduct was constructed in Paris. In London,
spring water was brought by means of lead pipes and masonry conduits in the
thirteenth century.
 During the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, large impounding reservoirs were
developed due to the necessity of feeding canals.
 The first water filter was constructed in 1804 by John Gibb at Paisley in Scotland.
 The first permanent use of chlorination originated under the direction of Sir Alexander
Houston at Lincoln in 1905.
1.4 Objectives of Water Supply System
The quintessential objective of water supply system is to supply water equitably to the
consumers with sufficient pressure so as to discharge the water at the desired location within
the premises.

1.5 Schematic Diagram of Typical Water Supply System
1. City/General
2. Hilly Area/Rural Area

3. Terai Area
6. Components of Water Supply System and their Functions
The components of a water supply system can be divided into two major parts:
1. Transmission Line or Transmission Main: Pipeline from intake to reservoir tank.

2. Distribution Line: Pipeline from reservoir tank to tap stand.
There are three systems of supply as:
i. Gravity Flow System

ii. Pumping System
iii. Dual System
(Details will be studied in chapters to come later.)

CHAPTER – II
SOURCES OF WATER
2.1 Classification of Sources of Water
Sources of Water
Sub-
Surface/Under
Surface Source
ground/Ground
Source
River, Stream, Spring, Well,

Lake, Pond, Infiltration
Impounded Gallery,
Reservoir Infiltration Well
Main source of water is precipitation.
2. Surface Sources
Surface sources have water on the surface of the earth such as in stream, river, lake, wetland or
ocean.
1. Rivers
 Natural channel
 Main source: either natural precipitation or snow-fed
 Perennial and non-perennial rivers
 Vast catchment area; hence, amount of water is large
 Contaminated source
2. Streams
 Natural drainage
 Less catchment area
 Source: Melting snow or precipitation
 Found in hilly, mountain areas
 Low quantity of water
 Potable water

3. Lakes
 Natural depression filled with water

 Found in mountain and hilly areas
 Quantity of water depends on: depression, catchment area and soil type
 Quality varies
4. Ponds
 Natural/Artificial depression found in plain areas

 Bad quality of water
 Not used as water supply source
 Less quantity of water
 Can be used for animal bathing and irrigation purposes.
5. Impounded Reservoirs
An impounding reservoir is a basin constructed in the valley of a stream or river for the purpose
of holding stream flow so that the stored water may be used when water supply is insufficient.
E.g. Sundarijal Dam
The dam is constructed across the river in such places where minimum area of land is
submerged, where river width is less and the reservoir basin remains cup shaped having
maximum possible depth of water. Hence, it is defined as an artificial lake created by the
construction of a dam across the valley containing a watercourse.
Two functions: i) To impound water for beneficial use
ii) To retard flood
The location of impounded reservoir depends upon the quality and quantity of water available,
existence of suitable dam site, distance and elevation of reservoir, density and distribution of
population, geological conditions, etc.
The water quality is the same as in streams and rivers.
2.2.6 Numerical on Capacity Determination of Impounded Reservoirs
The flow in the river during the various months of the year (in m3/s) is as follows:
January – 2.97 May – 0.51 September – 4
February – 1.99 June – 1 October – 5
March – 1 July – 2 November – 4
April – 0 August – 3 December – 2.8

The river supplies water to a community having a constant demand of 6202 million litres/month.
Determine the capacity of impounded reservoir.

I. ANALYTICAL METHOD
()
Flow Inflow Cumulative Cumulative

Where, (in
Months n = number of daysDemand
in the month Inflow Demand
Surplus Deficit
(ML) (ML) (ML) (ML)
m3/s) (ML) (ML)
January 2.97 7954.848 6202 7954.848 6202 1752.85
February 1.99 4814.208 6202 12769.056 12404 365.056
March 1 2678.4 6202 15447.456 18606 3158.54
April 0 0 6202 15447.456 24808 9360.54
May 0.51 1365.984 6202 16813.44 31010 14196.6
June 1 2592 6202 19405.44 37212 17806.6
July 2 5356.8 6202 24762.24 43414 18651.8
August 3 8035.2 6202 32797.44 49616 16818.6
September 4 10368 6202 43165.44 55818 12652.6
October 5 13392 6202 56557.44 62020 5462.56
November 4 10368 6202 66925.44 68222 1296.56
December 2.8 7499.52 6202 74424.96 74424 0.96
Total 74424.96 74424
II. GRAPHICAL METHOD

 The largest possible positive difference (perpendicular distance between the two
graphs) gives the value of maximum surplus.
 The largest possible negative difference (cumulative demand more) gives the value
of maximum deficit.
 The difference between the ends of the curves gives the value of the required
capacity of impounded reservoir.

Determination of Capacity of Impounded Reservoir

8
Inflow and Demand (Cumulative) in ML
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
12
5 Months
0
0
2.3 Ground Sources
0
When water 0 seeps into the ground, it moves downward due to gravity through the pore spaces
between soil particles and cracks in rocks. Eventually, the water reaches a depth where the soil
40000
C
and rock are saturated with water. Water which is found in the saturated u
part of the ground
underneath the land surface is called ground water. m
u
2.3.1 Confined and Unconfined Aquifers l
a
t
i
v
e
D
e
m
a
n
d
(
M
L
)
30000
Cumul
ative
Inflow
(ML)
20000
10000

2. Springs
A spring is the natural outflow of ground water appearing at the earth’s surface as a current of
stream of flowing water under the suitable geological conditions. Most favourable conditions
for spring formation occur in Nepal and may be suitable for water supply schemes in village
areas in hilly region of Nepal.
Springs are capable of supplying small quantity of water so it can’t be used as a source of water
to big towns but a well developed or combinations of the various springs can be used for water
supply especially villages near hills or bases of hills. The quality of water in spring is generally
good and may contain sulphur in certain springs which discharge hot water which can be used
only for taking dips for the cure of certain skin diseases. It may be less costly because it may not
need treatment plant. Springs may be classified into the following two types:
a. Gravity Springs
b. Non Gravity Springs

1. Gravity Springs
These springs result from water flowing under hydrostatic pressure and they are of the
following three types:
i. Depression Spring
These springs are formed due to the overflowing of the water table, where the ground surface
intersects the water table. The flow from such spring is variable with the rise or fall of water
table and hence in order to meet with such fluctuations, a deep trench may be constructed near
such spring. The deeper the trench, the greater is the certainty of continuous flow because the
saturated ground above the elevation of the trench bottom will act as a storage reservoir to
compensate for the fluctuations of the water table.
ii. Surface Spring or Contact Spring
These are created by a permeable water bearing formation overlying a less permeable or
impermeable formation that intersects the ground surface. However, in such springs, because of
the relatively small amount of underground storage available above the elevation of the
overflow crest, the flow from them is uncertain and likely to cease after a drought. Such springs
can also be developed by the construction of a cutoff trench or a cutoff wall.
iii. Artesian Spring
These springs result from release of water under pressure from confined aquifers either at an
outcrop of the aquifer or through an opening in the confining bed. The amount of water
available in an artesian spring may be large if the catchment area is large. The flow may be
slightly increased by removal of obstructions from the mouth of the spring.
2. Non Gravity Springs
Non gravity springs include volcanic spring (associated with volcanic rocks) and fissure spring
(results from fractures extending to the great depths in the earth’s crust). These are also called
hot springs and contain high minerals as well as sulphur also.
3. Wells
A well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical and excavated in the ground for bringing groundwater
to the surface. Wells are classified as follows:
1. Open or Dug or Draw or Percolation Well
They are of large diameters (1 to 10 m), low yields and not very deep (2 to 20 m). These are
constructed by digging hence also called dug wells. The walls may be of brick, stone masonry or
precast rings and thickness varies from 0.5 to 0.75 m depending upon the depth of the well. It is
also further classified as following two types:
i. Shallow Open Well

ii. Deep Open Well

2. Driven Well or Percussion Well
The shallow well constructed by driving a casing pipe of 2.5 cm to 15 cm in diameter and up to
12 m deep is called driven well. The casing pipe is driven first in the ground by hammering or by
water jet and the pipes are inserted. The lower portion of the pipe, which is driven in the water
bearing strata, is perforated and the pointed bottom is called drive point or well point.
The perforated portion of pipe is covered with fine wire gauge to prevent passage of sand and
soil particle. The discharge in this well is very small and can be obtained using hand or electric
pump and can be used for domestic purposes. E.g. Rower Pump used in the Kathmandu valley.
3. Tube Well
It is the well made of small diameter pipe installed after boring and inserted deep to trap water
from different aquifers. A tube well is a long pipe sunk to the ground intercepting one or more
water bearing strata. E.g. in Terai regions of Nepal.
As compared to open wells, the diameter of tube wells is much less. Tube wells may be
classified as shallow tube well (depth up to 30 m) and deep tube well (maximum depth up to 600
m). Quality may be better but may have various impurities, which should be treated and
quantity is larger so it can be used as water supply. Tube wells may be further classified into the
following:
i. Strainer type Tube Well

ii. Cavity type Tube Well
iii. Slotted type Tube Well
Perforated type Tube Well
iv.
4. Artesian Well
It is the well from where water flows automatically under pressure. Mostly they are found in the
valley portion of the hills where aquifers on the both sides are inclined towards valley. The HGL
(Hydraulic Gradient Line) passes much above the mouth of well, which causes flow under
pressure. The water flows out in the form of fountain upto a height of 2.5 m depending upon
hydrostatic pressure. Some wells, which flow continuously throughout the year and can be
stored in reservoir and taken for water supply. The quality of water in artesian wells may be
good but sometimes it contains minerals and can be used after certain treatment.
2.3.4 Infiltration Galleries and Wells
Infiltration Gallery
Infiltration Gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel, usually rectangular (arched also)
in cross section and having permeable boundaries so that ground water can infiltrate into it.
Hence, it is also called horizontal well. It is generally located near a perennial recharge source
such as the bank or under bed of a river and 3 to 10 meters below the ground. It is also used to
collect ground water near marshy land or water bodies and stored in storage tank and then
used for water supply.

The quantity and quality depends upon the location and area of coverage. It is constructed by
the cut and covers method and made up with dry brick masonry wall or porous concrete blocks
with weep holes and R.C.C. slab roof or an arch roof. Manholes are provided at suitable points
for inspection. The perforations are covered by the graded gravel to prevent the entry of fine
particles in the gallery. Series of galleries may be laid in the proper slope and collected at
certain reservoir then it can be used as the water supply after certain treatment.
Infiltration Wells
Shallow wells constructed in series along the banks and sometimes under the bed of rivers to
collect water seeping through the walls of the wells are called infiltration wells. These wells are
constructed of brick masonry with open joints. For purpose of inspection, manhole is provided
in the top cover of the well.
The water infiltrates through the walls and bottom of these wells and has to pass through sand
bed and gets purified to some extent. Various infiltration wells are connected by porous pipes
and collected to the collecting sump well called Jack from where it can be conveyed for water
supply. The water quality is better in such well because the bed soil acts as a filter and lesser
treatment may be required.
4. Selection of Water Source
The selection of the sources of water depends upon the following factors:
a. Location
 It should be near to the consumer’s area or town as far as possible.
 They may be either surface or ground sources and the selection of the source depends
upon other factors. If there is no river, stream or reservoir in the area, the ultimate
source is ground source.
 Location may be at higher elevation such that required pressure may be obtained and
water can be supplied by gravity flow.
b. Quantity of Water
 It should have sufficient quantity of water to meet the demand for that design period in
the wet and dry seasons also. Two or more sources can be joined for required quantity.
 If possible, there should be sufficient supply for future extension of project.
c. Quality of Water
 The water should be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria, germs and pollution and so
good that water can be cheaply treated.
 The water quality should be such that it has less quantity of impurity, which further
needs less treatment.
d. Cost
 It should be able to supply water of good quality and quantity at the less cost.
 Gravity system of flow is generally cheaper than pumping.
 Lesser the impurities, lesser the treatment and cost is reduced.
 Cost analysis is necessary for various options and suitable one is selected.

e. Sustainable and Safe

f. Reliable
g. Non conflict among water users
(For pictures, refer any standard book.)

CHAPTER – III
QUANTITY OF WATER
1. Per Capita Demand of Water
It is the average quantity of water required by a person in a day. The unit is lpcd (litres per capita
demand of water).
The unit of total water demand is litres/day.
2. Design and Base Periods
i. Survey Year: It is the year in which survey is carried out.

ii. Base Period: It is the period between survey year and base year during which the works
of survey, design and construction are completed. Base Period is generally taken
as 2 to 3 years.
iii. Base Year: It is the year in which implementation is done.
Base Year = Survey Year + Base Period
iv. Design Period: Any water supply project is planned to meet the present requirements of
community as well as the requirement for a reasonable future period (up to service
year). This period between Base Year and Service or Design Year is taken as Design
Period. It is generally 15 to 20 years. This period is taken 15 years in communities where
the population growth rate is higher and 20 years in communities where population
growth rate is comparatively lower.
v. Design/Service Year: It is the year up to which water demand is
to be fulfilled. Service Year = Survey Year + Base Period + Design
Period
= Base Year + Design Period
2. Selection Basis
Design Period is selected based on the following:
 Useful lives of the component considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.

 Expandability aspect.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population including industrial,
commercial developments and migration-immigration.
 Available resources.
 Performance of the system during initial period.
Suppose, r = growth rate of population
If r ≥ 2, design period is 15 years and if r < 2, design period is 20 years.
3. Types of Water Demand
1. Domestic Demand
 Water demand required for domestic purposes.

 Required for both urban and rural areas.
 Depends upon the habit, social status, climatic conditions, living standard, etc.
S.N. Types of Consumption Water Demand (lpcd)
1 Private Connection and Fully Plumbed System 112

2 Private Connection and Partly Plumbed System 65
3 Public Stand Post 45 (can come down to 25)
2. Livestock Demand
 Quantity of water required for domestic animals and livestock including birds.
 Generally considered in rural water supply.
 Livestock demand should not be greater than 20% of domestic demand.
Water Demand
S.N. Types of Consumption (lpcd)
1 Big animals >> cow, buffalo 45
2 Medium animals >> goat, dog 20
3 Small animals >> birds 0.2
3. Commercial/Institutional Demand
 Quantity of water required for commercial institutions like schools, colleges, hospitals,
offices, etc.
 For commercial and institutional purpose, 45 lpcd can be taken.

Demand
Institutions
Urban Area Rural Area
a. Hospitals/Health Posts/Clinics
i. With Bed 500 l/bed/day 325-500 l/bed/day
ii. Without Bed 2,500 l/day 1600-2500 l/hospital/day
b. Schools
i. Boarders 65 lpcd 42-60 lpcd
ii. Day Scholars 10 lpcd 6.5-10 lpcd
c. Hotels
i. With Bed 200 l/bed/day 200 l/bed/day
ii. Without Bed 500-1000 l/day 500-1000 l/day
d. Restaurants/Tea Stall 500-1000 l/day 200-500 l/day
e. Offices
i. Unclassified 500-1000 l/day 325-1000 l/office/day
ii. Resident 65 lpcd 65 lpcd
iii. Non resident 10 lpcd 10 lpcd
4. Public/Municipal Demand
 Considered only in urban areas for municipal purposes e.g. cleaning roads, for public
parks.
 We adopt criteria by Indian Government.
i. Street Washing = 1 to 1.5 l/m2 of surface area of road/day
ii. Public Parks = 1.4 l/m2/day
iii. Sewer Cleaning = 4.5 l/person/day
5. Industrial Demand
 Normally considered in urban areas.

 Quantity of Water required for various industries and factories.
 Generally taken as 20 to 25% of total demand.
6. Fire Fighting Demand
Authority Formula (P in '000, Q in l/min)

1. National Board of Fire Underwriters Formula Q = 4637 √P (1 - o.01 √P)
2. Freeman's Formula Q = 1136 (P/5 + 10)
3. Kuichling's Formula Q = 3182 √P
4. Buston's Formula Q = 5663 √P
5. Indian Water Supply Manual Formula Q = 100 √P, Q in cubic meter/day

7. Loss and Wastage
 15% of total demand is considered to be loss and wastage.

 Loss or wastage of water can occur due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken
pipes, faulty valves and fittings, unauthorized connection (theft), allowance for keeping
tap open, etc.
 Loss and wastage is about 40% in Kathmandu Valley.
 Considered only for urban areas.
8. Total Demand
Total Demand = Domestic Demand + Livestock Demand + Commercial Demand +

Municipal Demand + Industrial Demand + Fire Fighting Demand + Loss and Wastage
3.4 Variation in Demand of Water
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet all the
fluctuations. There are three types of variations in demand of water.
 Seasonal Variation: The demand peaks during summer. Fire breaks out generally more
in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation. Maximum seasonal
consumption is 140% and minimum seasonal consumption is 80% of average daily per
capita demand.
 Daily Variation: Daily variation is due to the variation in activities. People draw out
more water on holidays and festival days, thus increasing demand on these days. Daily
variation may also occur due to climatic condition (rainy day or dry day) and the
character of the city (industrial, commercial or residential). Maximum daily
consumption is 180% of average daily per capita demand.
 Hourly Variation: Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range.
During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to
eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours, the
variation in requirement is negligible. The maximum hourly consumption is 150% of
average daily per capita demand.

5. Peak Factor
Maximum demands at all these variations are expressed in terms of percentage of average
annual daily consumption (AADC) or ‘Qav’.
AADC or Qav = P x q, where P is the population and q is per capita demand.
Peak Demand is the maximum hourly demand on the day of maximum demand of the season
of maximum demand.
Peak Demand = PFH x PFD x PFS of AADC
Where, PFH = Peak Factor of Hourly Variation
PFD = Peak Factor of Daily Variation PFS
= Peak Factor of Seasonal Variation
Hence, Peak Demand = 1.5 x 1.8 x 1.4 x AADC = 3.93 x AADC
 Generalizing, Peak Demand = Peak Factor x AADC

 Peak Factor is normally taken 3 in Nepal.
6. Factors affecting Demand of Water

i. Size of the City: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that
for smaller towns as big cities have mostly private connection in every house with fully
plumbed system.
ii. Presence of Industries
iii. Climatic Conditions: If a community is located in hot climate, water use will be
increased by bathing, lawn sprinkling and use in parks and recreation fields. In extreme
cold climates, water may be wasted at the faucets to prevent freezing of pipes, resulting
in increased consumption.

iv. Standard of Living: The higher the standard of living is, the higher the demand and
greater the variation in demand.
v. Quality of Water: If water is aesthetically and medically safe, the consumption will
increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
vi. Pressure in the Distribution System: Higher pressure results in increased use while
lower pressure results in decreased use.
vii. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
viii. Cost of Water
Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charge in two different ways: on
ix. the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
3.7 Population Forecasting – Necessity and Methods
A particular method is to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city. The selection is
left to the discretion and intelligence of the designer.
Sample Problem:
% increase Incremental Decrease in %

Increase in in increase in increase of
Year Population
Population Population Population
Population
1981 8000 - - - -
1991 12000 4000 50 - -
2001 17000 5000 41.67 1000 8.33
2011 22500 5500 32.35 500 9.32
Total 14500 124.02 1500 17.65
Average A = 4833 G = 41.34 I = 750 D = 8.82
Present Population, P = 22500
A = average increase per decade = 4833
G = average % increase in population per decade = 41.34%
I = average incremental increase per decade = 750
D = average decrease in % increase of population = 8.82
1. Arithmetical Increase Method
 Assumption: The increase in population from decade to

decade is assumed constant.
 This method is suitable for larger and old cities which have practically reached their
maximum development (i.e. cities which have reached their saturation population).
Pn = future population at the end of ‘n’ decades

n = number of decades
P = present population
From above example,
P2021 = 22500 +
1 x 4833 = 27333
P2027 = 22500 +
1.6 x 4833 = 30233
2. Geometrical Increase Method or

Uniform Percentage Growth
Method
 Assumption: The percentage

increase in population from ( )
decade to decade is constant.
 Pn = population
This method is suitable after
when‘n’ decades
the city is young and rapidly
G = average % increase per decade
increasing.
 This
Givesishigh
the most
resultcommon
than arithmetical increase method – so, much safer result.
method used in Nepal.
( )
( )
 This method combines both the above two methods – gives value between the above
3.7.3 Incremental Increase Method
two methods.
( )
3.7.4 Decreased Rate of Growth Method
Year % increase
2011 – 2021 32.35 – 8.82 = 23.53
2021 – 2031 23.53 – 8.82 = 14.71
2031 – 2041 14.71 – 8.82 = 5.89
2041 – 2051 -ve (so zero – constant)

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The survey data collected for a water supply scheme in a village of Nepal is given below:
Survey Year – 2013 Number of goats – 560 Number of day scholars in

school – 125
Base Year – 3 years Number of chickens – 2200
Number of boarders
Design Period – 20 years Annual population in school – 20
growth rate – 1%
Population – 500 Number of tea shops – 2
Number of health posts – 1
Number of cows – 20 VDC Office – 1
Calculate Design Year Total Water Demand.
At 2036,
( )
( )
( )
1. Domestic Demand = 45 x 629 = 28305 l/d

2. Livestock Demand
i. Big animals = 45 x 20 = 900
ii. Medium animals = 20 x 560 = 11200
iii. Small animals = 0.2 x 2200 =
440 Total = 12540 l/d
Check: Livestock Demand = 20% of Domestic Demand = 0.2 x 28305 = 5661 l/d
Hence, actual livestock demand = 5661 l/d
3. Commercial Demand
a. Day Scholars = 10 x 157 = 1570
b. Boarders = 65 x 25 = 1625
c. Health Post = 2500

d. Tea Shop = 2 x 1000 = 2000

e. VDC Office = 500
Total = 8195 l/d
Hence, Total Water Demand = 12540 + 28305 + 5661 + 8195 = 54701 l/d

CHAPTER – IV
QUALITY OF WATER
1. Impurities in water, their classification and effects
1. Suspended Impurities
E.g. sand, silt, algae, virus
Characteristics:
 They develop
colour.
 They make
turbidity high.
Suspended impurity
is measured in terms
of turbidity.
 They develop
taste.
 They invite
diseases.
 They are
macroscopic or can
be microscopic.
Removed by:
Sedimentation or
Chemical Treatment
2. Colloidal Impurities
 Microscopic.
Their size is between
10-3 mm to 10-6 mm.
 Not removed
by sedimentation
 Develop
charges (anions)
 Cause colour
in water and these
Constituents
impurities cause Effects
a. Calcium and Magnesium
epidemics.
i. Bicarbonate Alkalinity
 Have much
ii. Carbonate Alkalinity and hardness
less
iii. weight
Sulphate Hardness
iv.
 Chloride
They come Hardness, corrosion
in motion due to
b. Metals and Compounds
repulsion.
i. Lead Cumulative poisoning
Removed by: +ve charge
for neutralization
Shuvanjan and
Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 23
settlement
3. Dissolved Impurities
ii. Arsenic Toxicity, poisoning

iii. Iron Oxide Taste, red colour, corrosiveness, hardness
iv. Manganese Black or brown colour
v. Barium
vi. Cadmium Toxic effect on heart, nerves
vii. Cyanide Toxic, illness
viii. Boron Fatal
ix. Selenium Affects central nervous system
x. Silver Highly toxic to animals and fish
xi. Nitrates Discoloration of skin, eyes
Blue baby condition, infant poisoning, colour and
acidity
c. Gases
i. Oxygen Corrosive to metals
ii. Carbon Acidity, corrosiveness
iii. Hydrogen Sulphide Odour, acidity and
corrosiveness
2. Hardness and Alkalinity
Water is said to be ‘hard’ when it contains relatively large amounts of bicarbonates, carbonates,
sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium dissolved in it. It is the property that
prevents lathering of soap.
1. Types of Hardness
Types of
Hardness
Permanent Temporar
Hardness y
Hardness
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium and is also known as ‘non-carbonate hardness’ (NCH). Permanent hardness can’t be
removed by simple boiling but requires special treatment of softening.
Temporary hardness is known as ‘carbonate hardness’ (CH) and due to the presence of
carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by
adding lime. On boiling, CO2 escapes and insoluble CaCO3 gets precipitated. So, temporary
hardness causes deposition of Ca scales in boilers.
Total Hardness (TH) = CH + NCH

Where, ion = Mg, Ca, Sr (Strontium)
Eq. wt. of Mg = 12.2, Eq. wt. of Ca = 20, Eq. wt. of Sr = 43.8, Eq. wt. of CaCO3 =
50
Effects of Hardness:
1. Wasteful consumption of soap while washing and bathing.

2. Modifies colour if used in dyeing work and washing clothes.
3. Produces scale in steam boiler and its pipe which reduces heat transfer and finally
causes leak.
4. Causes corrosion and incrustation of pipelines and fittings.
5. Scale formation further causes corrosion, caustic brittleness, decreases efficiency and
danger of burst of pipe line and boiler.
6. Makes food tasteless, more fuel consumption and causes bad effects to our digestive
system.
Measurement of Hardness in Water:
Hardness of water is measured in ppm or mg/l of calcium carbonate present in water.
Range (mg/l) 0 – 50 50 – 100 100 – 150 150 – 250 > 250

Hardness Level Soft Moderately Slightly Hard Moderately Hard
Soft Hard
The hardness of water is also expressed as the degree of hardness. It may be Clark Scale, French
Scale or American Scale.
Clark’s Scale: 1° Cl = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 14.254 mg of

calcium carbonate present in one litre of water which causes wastage of about 0.6 gm of soap in
1 litre of water (i.e. 14.254 ppm).
French Scale: 1° Fr = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 10 mg of calcium

carbonate present in one litre of water.
American Scale: 1° Am = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 17.15 mg of

calcium carbonate present in one litre of water.
4.2.2 Types of Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. It is an aggregate of the sum

of all titratable bases in the sample. When pH of water is > 7, it is said to be alkaline. Alkalinity
in most natural waters is due to the presence of carbonate (CO -- bicarbonate (HCO -), and
3 ), 3
hydroxyl (OH-) anions.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity due Alkalinity due

to to Carbonate
Bicarbonate
[ ]
[ ]
Alkalinity caused by hydroxides is called hydroxide alkalinity or caustic alkalinity, caused by

carbonate is carbonate alkalinity and caused by bicarbonate is called bicarbonate alkalinity.
4.2.3 Relation between Hardness and Alkalinity
1. When Total Hardness > Total
Alkalinity CH = Total Alkalinity
NCH = TH – CH
2. When Total Hardness ≤ Total
Alkalinity CH = TH
NCH = 0
Problem:
The analysis of water from a well shows the

following results in mg/l.
++ ++ + +
- -- -
--
Ca = 65, Mg = 51, Na = 100, K = 25,
HCO3 = 248, SO4 = 220, Cl = 18, CO3
= 240
Find Total Hardness (TH), Carbonate

Hardness (CH) and Non-Carbonate
Hardness (NCH).
Solution:

Non-Carbonate Hardness (NCH) = 0

++
++
1. The analysis of a water sample shows the following results in mg/l. Ca = 7, Mg
=
+ + - -- -
12, Na = 20, K = 25, HCO3 = 68, SO4 = 7, Cl = 40. The concentration of Sr is
equal
to hardness of 2.52 mg/l and the carbonate alkalinity in water is zero. Calculate TH, CH
and NCH.
2. Total hardness obtained from the analysis of water is found to be 117 mg/l. The analysis
i. NCH.
further showed that the concentrations of all the three principle cations causing
ii. The concentration of principle cation (Ca, Mg, Sr)
hardness are numerically same. If the value of CH = 57 mg/l, calculate:
iii. Total Alkalinity (TA)
3. Living Organisms in Water
a. Algae
b. Bacteria
c. Virus
d. Helminthes or Worms
(Refer descriptions in any book.)
4. Water Related Diseases
4.4.1 Water borne Diseases
Water borne diseases are caused due to drinking water contaminated with pathogenic
microorganisms. Some of the most common water borne diseases are typhoid fever, dysentery
(amoebic and bacillary), gastro-enteritis, infectious hepatitis, schistosomiasis, etc.
Water borne
diseases
Bacterial Protozoal Helminthic

Virus diseases
diseases diseases (worm) diseases
a. BACTERIAL DISEASES: Botulism, Cholera, E. coli infection, Dysentery, Typhoid fever

b. PROTOZOAL DISEASES: Amoebiasis, Giardiasis
c. VIRUS DISEASES: SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), Hepatitis A,
Poliomyelitis
d. HELMINTHIC DISEASES: Schistosomiasis, Swimmer’s itch

2. Water washed/hygiene Diseases
Water washed diseases are caused by poor personal hygiene and skin or eye contact with
contaminated water. Examples of water washed diseases include scabies, trachoma and flea, lice
and tick-borne diseases.
3. Water based Diseases
Water-based diseases are caused by parasites found in intermediate organisms living in

contaminated water. Examples include dracunculiasis, schistosomiasis and other helminthes.
These diseases are usually passed to humans when they drink contaminated water or use it for
washing.
** Schistosomiasis is a water-based disease which is considered the second most important

parasitic infection after malaria in terms of public health and economic impact.
4. Water vector Diseases
 Due to vector like mosquitoes
E.g. malaria (mosquito injects protozoa), filariasis (elephantiasis) – mosquito carrier, no

circulation of blood in joints, swelling of body parts
5. Transmission Routes
Transmission routes refer to the ways in which a healthy person gets attacked by diseases.
a. Faecal-oral route
b. Penetration of skin
c. Due to vector

6. Preventive Measures
 Improve the quality of drinking water at source, at the tap, or in the storage vessel
 Interrupting the routes of transmission
 Protecting food from flies interrupts the faeces-flies-food route (at a household level).
 Chlorination of water interrupts the faeces-fluids-food and drinking water route (at the
community level).
 Increase the quantity of water available. This allows better hygiene and can thus
prevent disease transmission from contaminated hands, food or household utensils.
 Changing hygiene behaviour.
 Care in disposing of faeces. Safe and protective measures should be adopted to avoid
contamination and to destroy infectious organisms while handling and disposing of
infant and toddler faeces.
 Proper use and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.
 Good food hygiene.
5. Examination of Water
1. Physical Examination of Water (tests for temperature, colour and turbidity)
i. Test for temperature

 The temperature of water to be supplied should be between 10°C to 20°C.
 Temperature higher than 25°C is considered objectionable.
 Temperature of water can be measured with ordinary thermometers graduated in 0.1°C,
range from 0 to 50°C.
 At depths greater than 15m, a thermocouple may be used.
ii. Test for colour

 Colour can be measured against various standards or scales such as Hazen or Platinic
Chloride Scale, Burgess Scale or Cobalt Scale using a tintometer.
 In older days, test for colour of water was performed solely through visual inspection.
Test for Colour by Tintometer:
1. First, the apparent colour of water due to turbidity is removed by centrifuging.

2. A tintometer has an eye-piece with two holes.
3. A slide of the standard coloured water is seen through one hole, while the slide of the
water to be tested is seen through the other hole.
4. A number of slides of standard colour in water are kept ready for comparison.
5. The intensity of colour in water is measured in terms of arbitrary unit of colour on the
cobalt scale.
iii. Test for Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of resistance of passing of light through water. It is imparted by the

colloidal matter present in water. Units of turbidity in older days:

i. ppm in silica scale

ii. JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
iii. FTU (Formagen Turbidity Unit)
NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
iv. Unit)
Equipment: Turbidity Meter
2. Chemical Examination of Water (tests for pH, suspended, dissolved and total solids)
1. Test for pH
The hydrogen-ion concentration or pH value of water is a measure of degree of acidity or

alkalinity of water. For water at 21°C,
(H+ x (OH- = 10-14
) )
Water becomes acidic when concentration of H ions is increased and alkaline when
concentration of H ions is decreased.
() ( )
For pure water, pH = 7.
For water with maximum acidity, pH value is zero, while for water with maximum alkalinity, pH
value is 14.
For potable waters, the pH value should between 6 and 9, and preferable between 7 and 8.5.
2. Tests for Solids in Water
Total Solids - all solids in water. Total solids are measured by evaporating all of the water out of
a sample and weighing the solids which remain.
 Dissolved Solids - solids which are dissolved in the water and would pass through a
filter. Dissolved solids are measured by passing the sample though a filter, they drying
the water which passes through. The solids remaining after the filtered water is dried are
the dissolved solids.
 Suspended Solids - solids which are suspended in the water and would be caught by a
filter. Suspended solids are measured by passing sample water through a filter. The
solids caught by the filter, once dried, are the suspended solids.
 Settleable solids - suspended solids which would settle out of the water if given
enough time. Settleable solids are measured by allowing the sample water to
settle for fifteen minutes, then by recording the volume of solids which have
settled to the bottom of the sample.
 Nonsettleable solids - suspended solids which are too small and light to settle
out of the water, also known as colloidal solids. Nonsettleable solids are
measured by subtracting the amount of settleable solids from the amount of
suspended solids.

The amount of total solids should preferable be less than 500 ppm.
3.Biological Examination of Water (multiple tube and membrane fermentation method), most
probable number
MULTIPLE TUBE FERMENTATION TECHNIQUE

The coliform group of bacteria is defined as all aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-
negative, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose with gas and acid formation within 48 hours
at 35°C.
1. Presumptive Phase
This test is based on the ability of coliform group (E-coli) to ferment the lactose broth and
producing gas.
Procedure:
i. Definite amount of diluted samples of water are taken in multiples of ten, such as 0.1
ml, 1.0 ml, 10 ml etc. Then, the samples are placed in standard fermentation tubes
containing lactose broth and then kept in the incubator at a temperature of 37°C for a
period of 48 hours.
ii. If gas formed is seen in the tubes, it is the indication of presence of E. coli group and
result is +ve. If no gas is formed, the result is _ve.
iii. –ve result in presumptive test indicates the water is fit for drinking.
2. Confirmed Phase
The other bacteria than E. coli present also may ferment in presumptive test so the confirmed
test to indicate E. coli is necessary. This test consists of growing cultures of coliforms on media
which suppress the growth of other organisms.
Procedure:
i. Small amount of incubated sample showing gas in presumptive test is carefully

transferred to another fermentation medium containing brilliant green lactose bile
broth and placed in the incubator at 37°C for a period of 48 hours. If the gas is formed,
there is presence of E. coli and then step 2 is followed.
ii. Again the small portion of incubated material showing gas in presumptive test is
marked as streaks on the plates containing Endo or Eosin-methylene blue agar and the
plates are kept in the incubator at 37°C for a period of 24 hours. If colonies of bacteria
are seen after this period, it indicates the presence of E. coli and completed test is
necessary.
3. Completed Phase
This test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to again ferment the
lactose broth.

Procedure:
i. The bacterial colonies or cultures grown in the confirmed test are kept into lactose
broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes.
ii. The tubes are then kept in the incubator at 37°C for a period of 24 to 48 hours. If gases
are seen in tubes after this period, it indicates the presence of E. coli and the test is +ve
and it contains the pathogens, then detailed tests are necessary for pathogens.
iii. If result is –ve, it indicates the absence of E. coli and hence absence of pathogens.
Example:
If we take 10 test tubes out of which 3 test tubes are positive after third test and in each test
tube, 1 ml of sample is kept,
No. of positive tubes = 3
ml of sample in negative tubes = 7
ml of sample in all tubes = 10
MEMBRANE FILTRATION TECHNIQUE

The coliform group may be defined as comprising all aerobic and many facultative anaerobic,
gram -ve, rod-shaped bacteria that develop a red colony with a metallic sheen within 24 hours
at 35°C on an Endo-type medium containing lactose.
 Take 50 ml sample of water and a filter paper.

 The water is filtered through the filter paper.
 Filter paper is kept in petidions glass plate along with M. Endo medium.
 Incubate at 35°C for 20 hours.
 We can observe colonies of coliform.
where, x = sample

Problems:
 In water treatment plant, the pH values of incoming and outgoing waters are 7.3 and
8.5 respectively. Assuming a linear variation of pH with time, determine the average pH
value of time.
 There are two samples A and B of water, having pH values of 4.4 and 6.4 respectively.
Calculate how many times sample A is acidic than sample B.
 Find out the pH of a mixture formed by mixing the following two solutions.
Vol. 300 ml - pH = 7, Vol. 700 ml - pH = 5.
4.6 Water Quality Standard for Drinking Purpose
(refer from any book)


CHAPTER - V
INTAKES
1. Definition
Intakes are the structures used for safely withdrawing water from the source over predetermined
pool levels and then to discharge this water into the withdrawal conduit, through which it flows
up to water treatment plant.
2.Site selection of an intake Factors
governing location of intake:

1. As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the cost of
conveying water to the city is less.
2. The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best quality water
from the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant.
3. The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of
disposal of wastewater.
4. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a future
date.
5. The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the
driest period of the year.
6. The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get
flooded. Moreover, the flood water should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the
intake.
3. Classification of Intake
1. According to source types

2. According to its position
3. According to water available in the chamber
1. a. River Intake
An intake tower constructed at the bank or inside of the river to withdraw water is called river
intake.
These intakes consist of circular or rectangular, masonry or RCC intake tower from where water
can be withdrawn even in the dry period. Several inlets called penstocks for drawing water are
provided at the different levels to permit the withdrawal of water when the water level drops.
All inlet ends are provided with a screen (to prevent the entry of floating matters) with valves to
control the flow of water operation from the control room.
The penstock discharges the water into the intake tower (intake well) from where it is pumped
or flow under gravity.
In dry river intake, there will be no water inside if the tower inlet valves are closed.

In wet river intake, there is water inside the tower even if the inlet valves of the tower are closed.
Since, these types of intakes remain wet, inspection cannot be done easily.
b. Reservoir Intake
There is a large variation in the discharge of river during monsoon and summer. When there is
no sufficient water in the dry period, the water in monsoon is collected in impounded reservoir
by constructing weirs or dams across the river. The intake tower used in such cases is called
reservoir intakes. Two types of reservoir intakes are commonly used to suit the type of

dam constructed. One type is at the slope of earthen dams and other type is within the dam
itself in case of RCC dams.
In case of earthen dam, the intake may consist of an intake tower constructed on the upstream
toe at dam from where intake can draw sufficient quantity of water even in the driest period.
The water is withdrawn through intake pipes located at different levels with a common vertical
pipe so as to draw water in the driest period. The vertical pipe is connected at the bottom to an
intake conduit which is taken out through the body of dam. Each inlet of intake pipe is covered
with a hemispherical shaped screen to enter relatively clear water. The intake is provided with
valves to control flow from control room. Since there is no water inside the tower (only in inlet
pipes), this intake is called dry intake tower.
In case of RCC masonry dams, dry intake is constructed inside the dam itself and only porters
or intake pipes are provided at various levels with control valves.
c. Lake Intake
It is a submersible intake normally constructed at the central portion of the bed of lake for
withdrawal of water because maximum depth of water is available at the central portion of
natural lake. It consists of an intake conduit laid on the bed of lake with its inlet end placed in
the middle of the lake projecting above the bed. The inlet end is then covered by protective

timber or concrete crib. The water enters in the pipe through bell mouth (may be with screen)
and flows under the gravity to treatment plant directly or to the sump well from where it can be
pumped to treatment plant. More than one intake conduit can be used as per requirement.
Since Lake Intake is submersible, there is no obstruction to the navigation, no danger from
floating bodies and no trouble due to ice and cheap in construction. It can draw small quantity
of water and hence can be sued in small water supply schemes whereas it is not easily accessible
for maintenance.
d. Canal Intake
When intake is constructed on canal for water supply purpose, the intake is called canal intake.
It consists of simple structure constructed on the bank and not necessary to provide porters at
various levels because water level in the canal remains more or less constant. It consists of a
pipe placed in a brick masonry or RCC chamber constructed partly in the canal bank. On one
side of the chamber, an opening is provided with coarse screen to enter water. A bell-mouth
with hemispherical fine screen in the inlet end of the inlet pipe inside is provided and the
outlet pipe is brought through the canal bank and taken to the treatment plant. One sluice
valve operated by a wheel from the top of masonry chamber is provided to control flow in the
inlet pipe.
e. Spring Intake
An intake constructed at the spring source to withdraw water is called spring intake. It is
generally constructed in small rural water supply scheme in Nepal. Spring intake should be
impervious and provided around the source to prevent the source contamination and physical
damage by runoff water. Simply one or more springs can be joined for greater discharge and all
sources should be protected from animals, exposure, runoff and bathing etc. Protection work is
done by fencing, digging catch drain, bioengineering works, etc.

2. a. Submerged Intake: Constructed entirely under water. It is commonly used to obtain supply
from a lake.
b. Exposed Intake: It is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river, or in
some cases even away from the river banks.
3. a. Wet Intake: The water level is practically the same as the water level of the sources of
supply. Sometimes known as a jack well and most commonly used.
b. Dry Intake: There is no water in the water tower. Water enters through entry port directly into
the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used for the operation of valves.

CHAPTER – VI
WATER TREATMENT
The available raw water must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the
public for their domestic, industrial or any other uses.
The layout of conventional water treatment is as follows:
1. Objectives of Water Treatment
a. To remove the colour, odour (taste causing substances)

b. To remove the turbidity present in water
c. To remove pathogenic organisms
d. To remove hardness
e. To make water potable
f. To prevent the spread of diseases
2. Treatment Processes and Impurity Removal
1. SCREENING: Bulky and floating suspended matters are removed by the process of
screening.
2. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: Heavy and coarse suspended matters are removed by the
process of plain sedimentation.
3. SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: This process helps to remove fine
suspended and colloidal matters.
4. FILTRATION: It is the most important stage in the purification process of water. It
removes very fine suspended impurities and micro-organisms.
5. DISINFECTION: It is carried out to eliminate or reduce pathogenic micro-organisms
that have remained after the process of filtration.
6. SOFTENING: Removes hardness of water.
7. AERATION: Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen
sulphide and due to algae and related organisms. Aeration also oxidize iron and
manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water, removes CO2 and reduces
corrosion and removes methane and other flammable gases.
8. Removal of Fe and Mn.
9. Removal of other harmful constituents.

3. Screening
1. Purpose
The function of screening is to remove large floating, suspended and settleable solids. The
treatment devices for the purpose of screening include bar racks and screens of various
description.
2. Coarse, Medium and Fine Screens
COARSE SCREENS:
Coarse screens are called racks, are usually bar screens, composed of vertical or inclined bars
spaced at equal intervals across a channel through which water flows. Bar screens with relatively
large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead of pumps, while those ahead of
sedimentation tanks have smaller opening of 50 mm.
Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices. These
cleaning devices are rakes which periodically sweep the entire screen removing the solids for
further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle of 45° to the
horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the raking operations.
Mechanically cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically.

MEDIUM SCREENS:
Medium screens have clear opening of 20 to 50 mm. Bar are usually 10 mm thick on the
upstream side and taper slightly to the downstream side. The bars used for screens are
rectangular in cross section usually about 10 x 50 mm, placed with larger dimension parallel to
flow.
FINE SCREENS:
Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates, woven wire cloth or very
closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm. They are used to remove smaller
suspended impurities at the surface or ground water intakes, sometimes alone or sometimes
following a bar screen.
In case of surface intakes, fine screens are usually arranged with rotary drum perforated with
holes and are called rotary drum strainer. Micro strainer also can be used for this purpose where
some device is set up to clean continuously so that fine screens do not get clogged up. Fine
screens normally get clogged and are to be cleaned frequently. So they are avoided nowadays
for surface intakes and fine particles are separated in sedimentation.
HEAD LOSS:
The head loss created by a clean screen may be calculated by considering the flow and the
effective areas of screen openings, the latter being the sum of the vertical projections of the
openings. The head loss through clean flat bar screens is calculated from the following formula:
h = 0.0729 (V2 - v2)
where, h = head loss in m
V = velocity through the screen in m/s
v = velocity before the screen in m/s
Another formula often used to determine the head loss through a bar rack is Kirschmer's
equation:
h = b (W/b) 4/3 hv sin q
where h = head loss, m
b = bar shape factor (2.42 for sharp edge rectangular bar, 1.83 for rectangular bar with semicircle
upstream, 1.79 for circular bar and 1.67 for rectangular bar with both u/s and d/s face as semi-
circular).
W = maximum width of bar u/s of flow, m

b = minimum clear spacing between bars, m
hv = velocity head of flow approaching rack, m = v2/2g
q = angle of inclination of rack with horizontal
The head loss through fine screen is given by
h = (1/2g) (Q/CA)
where, h = head loss, m

Q = discharge, m3/s
C = coefficient of discharge (typical value 0.6)
A = effective submerged open area, m2
4. Plain Sedimentation
When the impurities are separated from suspending fluid by action of natural forces alone i.e.
by gravitation and natural aggregation of the settling particles, the operation is called plain
sedimentation.
1. Purpose
The main purpose of plain sedimentation is to remove large amounts of suspended solids
present in raw water. It is done after screening and before sedimentation with coagulation and
located near the filter unites and in case of variation of demand it can be used as the storage
reservoir.
2. Theory of Settlement
Principle of Sedimentation:
Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend
to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage, thereby
making easy to remove the sediments (called sludge) and floating matters (called scum).
Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank or sedimentation tank or
settling basin or sedimentation basin.
Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called the
detention period/time or retention period/time.
The sedimentation is affected by:
i. Velocity of flowing water

ii. Size, shape and specific gravity of particles
iii. Viscosity of water
iv. Detention time
v. Effective depth and length of settling zone

vi. Inlet and outlet arrangements
Types of Settling
Type I: Discrete Particle Settling: Particles settle individually without interaction with
neighbouring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles: Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at
a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone Settling: The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression: The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only
occur through compaction of the structure.
6.4.2.1 Derivation of Stoke’s Law
In Discrete Particle Settling, particles settle individually without interaction with

neighbouring particles. Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time.
Settling velocity remains constant.
If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it.
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is exerted and the
particles are accelerated in the direction of the force:
( )
This net force becomes the driving force.
Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction. This force,
called the drag force, is quantified by:
Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and increases as the
square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady state velocity is
reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving force:

()
For spherical particles,
Thus,
()
√( )
Also, we have,
()
Hence,
( )
√( )
The above equation is called Hazen’s Equation and applicable for particles having diameter
greater than 0.1 and less than 1 mm and Reynold’s Number ‘Re” greater than 1 and less than
1000. The nature of settling is neither laminar nor turbulent and so the settling is called
transition settling.
Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes.

()
( )
√
( )
( )
Temperature ‘T’ (°C) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

‘ ’-kinematic viscosity (mm2/s or 1.792 1.519 1.308 1.141 1.007 0.897 0.804
centistokes)
Hazen further indicated that for particles having diameter ‘d’ ≤ 0.1 mm and Reynold’s number
‘Re’ ≤ 1, Stoke’s Law is applicable. Mathematically,

Now,
Putting , we get,
Thus,
)
(
This is Stoke’s Equation.
6.4.2.2 Temperature Effect on Settlement
Since kinematic viscosity of water depends on temperature; the settlement process also
depends on temperature.
Alternatively, if temperature ‘T’ is introduced in place of ‘ ’ in above formula, it can be expressed

as:
()
These equations are valid for d ≤ 0.1 mm and Re ≤ 1. In this range, settling of particles is laminar
and so it is termed as laminar settling of particles.
If the nature of settling of particles is turbulent (i.e. 1000 < Re ≤ 10000) and ‘d’ > 1 mm, the value
of CD = 0.4. Then, Hazen’s equation becomes:
( ) ( )
√ ( )
This equation is called Newton’s Equation.
3. Ideal Sedimentation Tank
 Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously. The

intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are those which store water for a
certain period and keep it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow
velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an
intermittent type.

 Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow
rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with
radial or spiral flow.
In practice, settling occurs in flowing water. An ideal horizontal flow settling tank has the
following characteristics:
 At the inlet, the suspension has a uniform composition over the cross-section of the
tank.
 The horizontal velocity ‘vo’ is the same in all parts of the tank.
 A particle that reaches the bottom is definitively removed from the process.
4. Types of Sedimentation Tank
Sedimentation tanks are generally made of RCC and may be rectangular or circular in shape.
According to the method of function or operation, they are classified into:
i. Quiescent or fill and draw type

ii. Continuous flow type
Quiescent or Fill and Draw Type
This tank is normally rectangular in plan. The water is first filled and then allowed for some
retention period of 30 to 60 hours (normally 24 hours) for sedimentation of particles. The clear
water is drawn from outlet and the tank is then emptied and cleaning of sediments is done.
After cleaning, again the filling and emptying process is similarly repeated. These tanks need
more detention period, more labour and supervision. More than one tank is required and head
loss is high; hence, these tanks are not used nowadays.
Continuous Flow Type
Raw water is admitted continuously through inlet and allowed to flow slowly in the tank for
continuous settlement, cleaning and clear water continuously flows out through outlet. These
tanks work under the principle that by reducing the velocity of flow of water, large amounts of
particles present in water can be made to settle down. The velocity of flow of water in these
tanks is reduced by providing sufficient length of travel for water in the tank. Further, the
velocity of flow of water in these tanks is so adjusted that the time taken by particles of water to
move from inlet to outlet is slightly more than that required for settling of suspended particles
in water.
Continuous flow type sedimentation tanks may be rectangular, circular or square in shape.
a. Horizontal Flow Type

b. Vertical Flow Type

Long Rectangular Settling Basin

 Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable and flow control for large
volumes is easier with this configuration.
 A typical long rectangular tank has length ranging from 2 to 4 times its width. The
bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge
scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is
pumped out periodically.
A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:
Inlet Zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that
the flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.
Settling Zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet Zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharged through outlet weir.
Sludge Zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.
Inlet and Outlet Arrangements
Inlet Devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities.
A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet
below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow.
Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities
suitable for settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and
at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not
acceptable as they tend to cause excessive short-circuiting.

Circular Basins
 Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin,
but the flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the centre and is baffled to
flow radially towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously
decreasing as the distance from the centre increases. Thus, the particle path in a circular
basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular tank.
 Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less maintenance.

Vertical Flow Type Sedimentation Tank
These tanks may be square or circular in shape at the top and have hopper bottom. So it is also
called hopper bottom tank. The flow of water in this tank is vertical. Water enters into the tank
through centrally placed pipe and by the action of deflector box, it travels vertically downwards.
The sludge is collected at the bottom and removed from the sludge pipe with pump. The clear
water flows out through a circumferential weir discharging into the draw off channel.
5. Design of Sedimentation Tank
Design of sedimentation tank needs the following:
a. Inlet Zone with appropriate Inlet Structure: Suitable inlet structure should be
designed. It is kept at the halfway between the surface and the floor of the tank and

mid of the width of the water depth. The length of the inlet zone is taken as 0.2 to 1 m
according to velocity.
b. Outlet Zone with appropriate Outlet Structure: Suitable outlet structure should be
designed. The length of the outlet zone is taken as 0.2 to 1 m according to velocity.
c. Sludge Zone: The zone in the bottom of the tank in which sludge is retained before
being removed is called sludge zone. The depth of the sludge zone depends upon the
quantity of sediments in the raw water and the de-sludging period. Depth of sludge
zone is taken as 0.5 to 1.5 m (generally 1 m).
d. Free Board: The free space left on the top of the water level on the tank is called free
board (FB) and in design FB is taken as 0.1 to 1 m (generally 0.3 to 0.5 m).
e. Others such as Baffl es, Washout/Drain and Overflow etc.: Baffle walls are provided
to improve L/B ratio without increasing tank size. Washout is provided at the
bottom of the sloped portion for drain at cleaning. Overflow is provided just below from
the inlet in suitable side for overflow.
f. Settling Zone or Effective Zone: Actual settlement occurs in this zone. Hence,
effective dimensions [effective length (l), width (b) and effective depth (d)] of this zone
is very important for design.
Settling Operations
 Particles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity:
()
1.
2.

The path of the particle is given by the vector sum of horizontal velocity (vh) and vertical
settling velocity (vt).
 Assume that a settling column is suspended in the flow of the settling zone and that the
column travels with the flow across the settling zone. Consider the particle in the batch
analysis for type-1 settling which was initially at the surface and settled through the
depth of the column Zo, in the time to. If to also corresponds to the time required for the
column to be carried horizontally across the settling zone, then the particle will fall into
the sludge zone and be removed rom the suspension at the point at which the column
reaches the end of the settling zone.
All particles with vt > vo will be removed from suspension at some point along the
settling zone.
 Now consider the particle with settling velocity < vo. If the initial depth of this particle
was such that Zp/vt = to, this particle will also be removed. Therefore, the removal of
suspended particles passing through the settling zone will be in proportion to the ratio
of the individual settling velocities to the settling velocity vo.
The time to corresponds to the retention time in the settling zone.
Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the size of particles that can be
removed completely in the settling zone. The determining factor is the quantity Q/As, which
has the units of velocity and is referred to as the overflow rate (SOR – Surface Overflow Rate or
Surface Loading Rate) qo. This overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins and
corresponds to the terminal settling velocity of the particle that is 100% removed. As = effective
surface area of tank
Removal Efficiency of Sedimentation Tank
o
Let, is the settling velocity of smaller particles less than SOR (i.e. ( )) and if out of x
particles, x particles settle down and are removed, the ratio of removal of these particles (x/xo)
is called removal efficiency of sedimentation tank for discrete particles of same size and is
given by,
( )

Where, is SOR and represents the settling velocity of the slowest particles, which are 100%
removed.
Design Criteria of Sedimentation Tank/Design Details
1. Detention Period: For plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 hours, and for coagulate

sedimentation: 2 to 2.5 hours
2. Velocity of Flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow)
3. Tank Dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L = 30 m (common); maximum 100 m.
Breadth = 6 to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. Generally 20 to 40
m.
4. Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
5. SOR: For plain sedimentation: 12000 to 18000 L/d/m2 tank area; for thoroughly
flocculated water: 24000 to 30000 L/d/m2 tank area.
6. Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
5. Sedimentation with Coagulation/Clarification
General Properties of Colloids
1. Colloidal particles are so small that their

surface area in relation to mass is very
large.
2. Electrical Properties: All colloidal
particles are electrically charged. If
electrodes from a
D.C. source are placed in a colloidal dispersion, the particles migrate towards the pole of
opposite charge.
7. Colloidal particles are in constant motion because of bombardment by molecules of
dispersion medium. This motion is called Brownian motion (named after Robert Brown
who first noticed it).
4. Tyndall Effect: The Tyndall effect, also known as Tyndall scattering, is light scattering by
particles in a colloid or particles in a fine suspension.
5. Adsorption: Colloids have high surface area and hence have a lot of active surface for
adsorption to occur. The stability of colloids is mainly due to preferential adsorption of
ions. There are two types of colloids:
i. Lyophobic Colloids: that is solvent hating.

ii. Lyophilic Colloids: that is solvent loving.
1. Purpose
 Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by
gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of filtration media.
 To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in size.
The settling down and removal of such fine suspended particles and colloidal matters can be
achieved by chemically assisted sedimentation called sedimentation with coagulation or
clarification. The chemicals added are called coagulants; the formed insoluble gelatinous
precipitate is called floc; the process of adding coagulants to raw water and mixing it
thoroughly is known as coagulation and the process of formation of floc is called flocculation.
Shuvanjan
If Dahal
the content of (o68/BCE/147) Page
suspended solids in raw water is greater than 50 mg/l, the sedimentation 54
with
coagulation is used to effect more complete removal of the suspended matters.
2. Coagulants (types and their chemical reactions)
The following chemicals are used as coagulants:
1. Aluminium sulphates or alum

2. Iron salts
3. Chlorinated copperas
4. Sodium aluminate
The dose of coagulants depends upon turbidity, colour, pH, temperature and the time of the
settlement.
1. Aluminium Sulphates or Alum [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]
It is the commonly used coagulant for coagulation in water in which alum is added and for
alum water shall contain some alkalinity. If bicarbonate alkalinity is present in water, the floc
formed is given by:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
If raw water contains little or no alkalinity, then either lime (hydrated lime) or soda ash is added
for alkalinity. Then,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
() ()( )
Amount of alum required depends upon turbidity and colour of raw water. Usual dose is 5 mg/l
for relatively clear water to 30 mg/l for highly turbid water. Average dose for normal water is 14
mg/l but amount to be added is determined by jar test.
Advantages:
i. It forms excellent floc which is better than that formed by any other coagulant.
ii. The floc formed is stable and not broken easily.
iii. It is relatively cheap and removes colour, odour and taste.
iv. It doesn’t require skilled supervision and produces clear and crystal free water.
Disadvantages:
i. It requires alkalinity ranging pH from 6.5 to 8.5 in water for effective use.
ii. The product calcium sulphate may cause permanent hardness and carbon dioxide may
cause corrosion.
iii. Difficult to dewater the heavy sludge formed because it is not suitable for filling in the
low levels.
2. Iron Salts
The various iron salts used as coagulants are ferrous sulphates, ferric sulphates and ferric
chloride.

1. Ferrous Sulphates [FeSO4.7H2O]
It is also known as copperas and used as coagulant in conjunction with lime.
When ferrous sulphates is added first (with bicarbonate alkalinity)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
When lime is added first
( ) ( )
In above equation, Fe(OH)2 is unstable and absorbs dissolved oxygen and forms the stable floc.
( ) ( ) ( )
The effective range of pH value for coagulation with ferrous sulphates and lime is 8.5 and above.
2. Ferric Sulphates [Fe2(SO4)3]
It is also used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime and the reaction is:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The effective range of pH for coagulation with ferric sulphates is 4 to 7.
3. Ferric Chloride [FeCl3]
It is used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime or without lime.
Reactions:
When used without lime:
( )
When used with lime:
( ) ( ) The effective range of pH for
coagulation with ferric chloride is 3.5 to 6.5. Advantages of Iron Salts:
4. Produces fast forming, denser, quick settling and less breakable floc than alum at low
temperature.
5. Can be used in the wider range of pH and ferric chlorides and/or ferric sulphates may
remove manganese at > 9 pH.
6. Ferric chloride is effective in removing H2S, taste and colour.

Disadvantages of Iron Salts:
1. Additional lime increases the treatment cost and iron salts impart more corrosiveness to
water than alum.
2. Iron salts are difficult to handle due to corrosiveness and require skilled supervision on
application.
3. Promotes the growth of bacteria in distribution system.
4. It is suitable for sewage treatment.
3. Chlorinated copperas [FeCl3.Fe2(SO4)3]
The mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulphate is called chlorinated copperas and prepared
by adding 1 part chlorine to 7.8 part ferrous sulphate.
[ ] [ ( )]
This chlorinated copperas when added to water forms a tough floc which is removed in
sedimentation. The effective range of chlorinated copperas is from pH of 6 to 8. It is effective to
remove colour but very corrosive and common in sewage treatment.
4. Sodium Aluminate [Na2Al2O4]
It is sometimes used as coagulant. This chemical when dissolved and mixed with water reacts
with salts of calcium and magnesium and forms the precipitate of calcium and magnesium
aluminate.
( )
Similar chemical reactions take place in case of Mg salts. The effective range of pH for
coagulation with sodium aluminate is 6 to 8.5. This removes temporary and permanent
hardness but very costly and not used in public water supplies and used to treat boiler water.
3. Mixing Devices (Purpose and Types)
Following operations are involved in sedimentation with coagulation:
1. Feeding the coagulant

2. Mixing of coagulant
3. Flocculation
4. Sedimentation

1. Feeding the Coagulant
The coagulant may be fed to raw water either in powder form (called dry feeding) or in solution
form (called wet feeding). Coagulant feeding is done using dry feeding or wet feeding devices.
The choice between wet and dry feeding depends on:
a. Characteristics of coagulant and convenience of its application.

b. Dosages of coagulants: High dose-dry feed and vice versa.
c. Size of the treatment plant: Large size-wet feeder is used and vice versa.
2. Mixing of Coagulant
After the addition of coagulants to raw water, they are thoroughly and vigorously mixed so that
the coagulants get fully dispersed into the entire mass of water. Various mixing devices are as
follows but the first two types are common:
I. Mixing basin with baffle walls

II. Mixing basin with mechanical means
III. Mixing channels
IV. Hydraulic jump method
V. Compressed air method
VI. Centrifugal pumping method
a. Mixing Basin with Baffle Walls

These are the rectangular basins or tanks which are provided with baffle walls. The disturbance
created by the presence of baffle walls in the path of following water cause vigorous agitation of
water which resolves in through mixing of water with coagulant. Such basins are of two types:
i. Horizontal or Round End Type
The mixture and coagulants after entering the basin through an inlet provided at one end of the
basin, flows horizontally for short distance and due to the presence of baffle walls; it takes turn
and moves further as shown by the arrows and comes out through an outlet provided at the
other end of the basin to the flocculator.
ii. Vertical or Over and Under Type
The mixture of water and coagulant after entering the basin through an inlet provided at one
end of the basin, flows up and down as shown by the arrow due to the presence of vertical walls
projecting alternatively from the roof and the floor of the basin. Ultimately it flows out through
outlet at the other end of the basin to the flocculator.
Mixing basin should be properly designed to get the desired effect. The various considerations
for design are:
i. Velocity of flow in the channel should be between 0.15 m/s to 0.45 m/s (between
baffle walls).
ii. Detention period kept is 20 to 50 minutes.
iii. Distance between successive baffle walls should be at least 0.45 m.
iv. End opening between end baffle walls and basin walls should be about 1.5 times the
distance between the successive baffle walls subjected to minimum 0.6 m.
b. Mixing Basin with Mechanical Means

Mixing basin with baffle walls are used only for small treatment plant but for large plant mixing
basins with mechanically driven paddles is used. It is also called flash mixture and consists of a
deep circular or square tank which is provided with a propeller type impeller fixed at the lower
end of a vertical shaft which is driven by electric motor. Diameter of impeller provided is 0.2 to
0.4 times the tank diameter and impeller rotation speed is of 100 rpm.
3. Flocculation
(6.5.4 Flocculation tanks)
Longitudinal Flow Flocculator
Vertical Flow Flocculator

From the mixing basin, water is taken to the flocculator for flocculation. In a flocculator, slow
stirring of water is brought about to permit build up of the floc particles. There are various
types of flocculators but the mechanical flocculators are most commonly used. Mechanical
flocculator consists of a tank provided with paddles for stirring of water; hence, it is called
paddle flocculator. Depending upon the direction of flow of water in the tank, the mechanical
flocculator may be longitudinal or vertical flow flocculator.
A longitudinal flow flocculator consists of a rectangular tank provided with paddles revolving
on a horizontal shaft as shown in figure. A vertical flow flocculator consists of a circular tank
provided with paddles revolving on a vertical shaft as shown in second figure above. The
paddles are moved by electric motor. The water coming from mixing basins enters the
flocculator through an inlet and leaves through outlet to sedimentation tank. In longitudinal
flow flocculator, inlet and outlet are provided near the top of tank in opposite end but in
vertical type, inlet is provided at the bottom and outlet is provided near the top in opposite end.
Design Criteria:
A. Depth of tank = 3 to 4.5 m

B. Detention period = 10 to 45 minutes (30 min common)
C. Velocity of flow = 0.2 to 0.8 m/min (0.4 m/min common)
D. Total area of paddles = 10 to 25 % (15% common) of X-section of area of tank
E. Outflow velocity = 0.15 to 0.25 m/s to prevent settling or breaking of floc.
4. Sedimentation
(6.5.5 Clarifier)
The water from the flocculator is taken to the sedimentation tank also called the sedimentation
tank or clarifier. It consists of floc chamber and sedimentation tank. The detention period for
floc chamber is about 15 to 40 minutes and that for sedimentation tank is about 3 to 4 hours.
The surface overflow rate is from 20 to 40 meter cube/meter square/day. The depth of floc
chamber is usually kept about half of the depth of the sedimentation tank. The cleaning of this
tank is usually carried out at an interval of 3 to 6 months.
6.5.6 Jar Test
The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum operating
conditions for water or wastewater treatment. This method allows adjustments in pH, variations
in coagulant or polymer dose, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or
polymer types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment
operation.
Jar Testing Apparatus
The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1 litre containers.
One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among the

remaining five containers. An rpm gage at the top centre of the device allows for the uniform
control of the mixing speed in all of the containers.
The jar test procedures involve the following steps:
 Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used
as a control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions
are being tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or variations of
coagulant dosages can be added to determine optimum operating conditions.
 Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute. The
rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
 Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then
measure the final turbidity in each container.
 Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes. This
slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions
which lead to larger flocs.
 Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are
determined. The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and
adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system.
6. Filtration
1. Purpose
The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure and may contain some very fine
suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still
further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular materials such as sand, etc. The
process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is known as filtration.
The main purpose of filtration is to remove colour, odour, taste, bacteria and colloidal
impurities.

2. Theory of Filtration
There are four basic filtration mechanisms:
a. Mechanical Straining: Suspended matters larger than the size of interstices (voids
between sand grains) cannot pass through them and are trapped or arrested and then
removed which is called mechanical straining. Being smaller in size, colloidal matters or
bacteria may not be strained.
b. Sedimentation and Adsorption: The interstices between the sand grains act as very
small sedimentation tanks where the suspended matters settle. Due to physical
attraction between the suspended particles and sand grains and presence of gelatinous
coating forded due to these matters, other suspended particles, colloidal matters and
bacteria adhere there and are removed.
c. Biological Metabolism: Organic matters such as algae, plankton also caught by voids
between sand grains and these matters are used by bacteria for survival and convert
them into harmless compounds from biological metabolism. These harmless
compounds formed are deposited at the surface of sand and contains a zoological jelly
called ‘dirty skin’ which further enhances in adsorbing and straining activities. Bacteria
not only break organic impurities into harmless compounds but they destroy each other
and make a balanced life in the filter.
d. Electrolytic Action: As per ionic theory, when two substances of opposite charges
come into contact, the charge is neutralized and in doing so, new chemical substances
are formed. Sand particles in filter media also have charges of some polarity which
attracts the suspended, colloidal and dissolved matters of opposing polarity in
neutralizing and changes the chemical characteristics of water. After a long use,
charges in the sand grains get exhausted and it becomes necessary to clean filter for
regeneration of charges.
3. Types of Filter
A tank or device with filter media used for the filtration is called filter. Sand, either fine or
coarse, is generally used as filter media.
Based on the filtration rate and driving force to overcome friction by water flowing to filter,
filters are classified as:
a) Slow Sand Filter (SSF)

b) Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
c) Pressure Filter (PF)
6.6.3.1 Slow Sand Filter
SSF consists of fine sand, supported by gravel. This earliest type of gravity filter has a slow rate
of filtration (≤ 1/20th of that of RSF or PF). It captures particles near the surface of the bed and is
usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of sand that contains the particles. Pre-
treatment of water is not needed for < 20 NTU turbidity and can be directly fed to filter but if
water has high turbidity, plain sedimentation or sometimes sedimentation with coagulation is
done before feeding into SSF.

SSF consists of following:
I. Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or
concrete. The depth is 2.5 to 3.5 m, surface area is 10 to 20 m2 or more (depends upon
filtration rate), filtration rate is 100 to 200 lph/m2. The floor is provided at cross slope of
1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards central drain.
II. Filter Media: Consists of 90 to 110 cm thick sand layer with effective size (D10) of sand
0.25 to 0.35 mm (0.3 mm is common) and coefficient of uniformity (Cu) of 3-5. Finer the
sand better will be the removal of turbidity and bacterial removal efficiency but lowers
the filtration rate. The sand should not contain >2% of Ca and Mg.
III. Base Material: The sand layer is supported on base material of 30 to 75 cm thick gravel
bed. The gravel beds are provided four layers of each about 15 cm thicknesses with size 3
to 6 mm, 6 to 20 mm, 20 to 40 mm and 40 to 65 mm from the top. Mid layers between
top layer and bottom layer are called intermediate layers.
IV. Under Drainage System: It consists of central main drain and lateral drains 2 to 3 m
apart and starts from 50 to 80 cm distance of walls of tank. Lateral drain consists of
earthenware or perforated pipes laid with open joint or patented drain in slope.
V. Appurtenances: For efficient working, vertical air pipes, depth controlling device, head
loss measuring device, rate maintaining devices etc. are installed.
Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
 In a slow sand filter, impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
 During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sand grains.

 As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living quarters of vast

numbers of micro-organisms which break down organic material retained from the water,
converting it into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
 Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification
mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter
bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified and
contains less organic material.
 When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter.
They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterial
contents.
6.6.3.2 Rapid Sand Filter
RSFs are the most commonly used gravity filters in large water supply system. They consist of
larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles throughout the bed. They are
cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to ‘lift out’ the particles.
RSF consists of following:
I. Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete.
The depth is 2.5 to 3.5 m, surface area is 10 to 50 m2, and filtration rate is 3000 to 6000
lph/m2. Various number of filter units in series may be provided. Minimum

four units should be provided for large water supplies and minimum two for small
supplies. The length to width ratio is 1.25 – 1.35.
II. Filter Media: It should be free from dirt and clay. Consists of 60 to 90 cm thick sand layer
with effective size (D10) of sand 0.35 to 0.60 mm and coefficient of uniformity (Cu) of 1.3-
1.7.
Base Material: The sand layer is supported on base material of 45 to 60 cm thick gravel bed.
III.
The gravel beds are provided four layers of each about 15 cm thicknesses with size 2 to 6
mm, 6 to 12 mm, 12 to 20 mm and 20 to 50 mm from the top.
IV. Under Drainage System: The under drainage system is provided to collect the filtered
material and to provide uniform distribution for back water wash. Commonly used
drainage systems are (i) Perforated Pipe System and (ii) Pipe and Strainer System.
V. Appurtenances: Wash water trough, air compressor, rate control device, head loss
indicator meters, valves, etc. are used.
(Consult a book for working of RSF.)
Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter
 For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the
water applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some
filters can operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However,
this is not recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so
that it is difficult to expand the bed during the backwash.
 Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is generally
taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the clear well.
 The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media
and suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too
high, media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the filter.
When is Backwashing Needed?
The filter should be backwashed when the following conditions have been met:
 The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate;
and/or
 Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases;
and/or
 A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.
Operational Troubles in Rapid Gravity Filters
Air Binding:
 When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating through
the filter is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as more
and more impurities get trapped into it.
 A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media
exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is offered by the

top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand acts like a vacuum, and water is sucked
through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it.
 The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other gases
present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place which stick to the sand grains.
This phenomenon is known as Air Binding as the air binds the filter and stops its
functioning.
 To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss exceeds the
optimum allowable value.
Formation of Mud Balls:
 The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface to form a dense
mat. During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the sand bed and stick to
the sand grains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mud balls.
Cracking of Filters:
 The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed shrinks and causes the
development of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With the use of filter, the loss of head
and, therefore, pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing, which further goes on
widening these cracks.
Remedial Measures to Prevent Cracking of Filters and Formation of Mud Balls
 Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off the particles.
 Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda.
 Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.
Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters
 Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while

in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90
cm.
 Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to
0.55 and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
 Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in
RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
 Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
 Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water
may be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
 Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done
to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without
compressed air.
 Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2 m is the final
limit when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3 m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5 m is the
final limit when cleaning is required.

6.6.3.3 Pressure Filter
(Consult any standard textbook for details.)
7. Disinfection
1. Purpose
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing the
pathogenic bacteria using chemicals called disinfectants is known as disinfection.
Disinfection Kinetics:
When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit of disinfectant, the reduction
in microorganisms follows a first order reaction.
This equation is known as Chick’s Law.
N = number of microorganisms (No is initial number)
K = disinfection constant
T = contact time

2. Methods of Disinfection (introduction only)
1. Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine is explained by the recent theory of

enzymatic hypothesis, according to which the chlorine enters the cell walls of bacteria
and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic processes of living
organisms.
2. Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time.
However, it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of water. Moreover, it cannot
take care of future possible contaminations.
3. Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for softening. But
if excess lime is added to the water, it can, in addition, kill the bacteria also. Lime when
added raises the pH value of water making it extremely alkaline. This extreme alkalinity
has been found detrimental to the survival of bacteria. This method needs
the removal of excess lime from the water before it can be supplied to the general
public. Treatment like recarbonation for lime removal should be used after disinfection.
4. Ozone Treatment: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen and releases
nascent oxygen. This nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and removes the
organic matter as well as the bacteria from the water.
5. Iodine Treatment
6. Bromine Treatment
7. Potassium Permanganate Treatment: This is a common method of disinfection in
rural areas, where mostly the water supplies are from wells which contain lesser amount
of bacteria. Potassium permanganate is dissolved in a bucket of well water and the
bucket full of this water is mixed with the well water thoroughly. Potassium
permanganate not only kills the bacteria but it also helps in oxidizing the taste
producing organic matter.
8. Silver Treatment: Silver when immersed in water has been observed to exert an
inhibiting action on bacterial life.
9. UV Ray Treatment: Light is effective in killing both the active bacteria as well as spores.
3. Chlorination
Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways. It is most often added as a gas, Cl2 (g).
However, it also can be added as a salt, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach.
Chlorine gas dissolves in water following Henry’s Law.
( ) ( )
Once dissolved, the following reaction occurs forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl):
( )
Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that dissociates to form hypochlorite ion (OCl-).
All forms of chlorine are measured as mg/L of Cl2 (MW = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/mol).

Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion compose what is called the free chlorine residual.
These free chlorine compounds can react with many organic and inorganic compounds to form
chlorinated compounds. If the products of these reactions posses oxidizing potential, they are
considered the combined chlorine residual. A common compound in drinking water systems
that reacts with chlorine to form combined residual is ammonia. Reactions between ammonia
and chlorine form chloramines, which is mainly monochloramine (NH2Cl), although some
dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3) also can form. Many drinking water utilities
use monochloramine as a disinfectant. If excess free chlorine exits once all ammonia nitrogen
has been converted to monochloramine, chloramine species are oxidized through what is
termed the breakpoint reactions. The overall reactions of free chlorine and nitrogen can be
represented by two simplified reactions as follows:
Monochloramine Formation Reaction: This reaction occurs rapidly when ammonia nitrogen
is combined with free chlorine up to a molar ration of 1:1.
Breakpoint Reaction: When excess free chlorine is added beyond the 1:1 initial molar ratio,
monochloramine is removed as follows:
( )
The formation of chloramines and the breakpoint reaction create a unique relationship
between chlorine dose and the amount and form of chlorine as illustrated below:

Chlorine Demand
Free chlorine and chloramines readily react with a variety of compounds, including organic
substances, and inorganic substances like iron and manganese. The stoichiometry of chlorine
reactions with organics can be represented as shown below:
HOCl:
OCl-:
NH2Cl:
The amount of free chlorine consumed in such oxidation is called chlorine demand of water.
Chlorine Demand = Total amount of chlorine added – Amount of residual chlorine required
after a specified contact period
Chlorine Dose
The quantity of chlorine required to be added to water to leave 0.2 mg/l or ppm of freely
available residual chlorine after 10 minutes of contact period is called optimum dose of
chlorine. This is generally of about 1 ppm.
4. Types of Chlorine
a. Bleaching Powder
Bleaching powder of calcium hypochlorite Ca (OCl2) is a chlorinated lime and when mixed with
water it dissociates and reacts with hydrogen ions in water.
This process of chlorination is called hypochloration. Bleaching powder contains 30 – 35 % of

available chlorine and it is unstable and goes on losing when exposed to atmosphere. So it
requires careful storing.
Dose: For normal water, 0.5 to 2.5 kg/million litres of water.
It is not adopted for large public water supply but can be used in small colonies and swimming
pools.

b. Chloramines
Chloramines are compounds formed by reaction between ammonia and chlorine. Ammonia,
which is quickly soluble in water, is added just before chlorine (1 part ammonia + 4.5 part Cl).
( )
( )
( )
The compounds are quite stable in water and remains in water as residual for a sufficient time
so are more effective than chlorine alone. The reaction is slow hence water treated can only be
supplied to consumer after 20 minutes to 1 hour of application. It does not cause bad taste and
odour when left at residual but is weaker disinfectant than free chlorine disinfectant.
c. Chlorine Gas or Liquid Gas or Free Chlorine
Chlorine gas is fed directly to the point of application to the water supply in a pressure of 7
kg/cm2 or first dissolved in small flow of water than free chlorine disinfectant. Application of
gas chlorine is less expensive but less satisfactory because of poor diffusion of chlorine and at
lower temperature crystalline hydrates of Cl are formed and possibility of choking of pipes.
Undissolved Cl may corrode pipes and valves. Hence it is not generally used. Chlorine gas or
liquid chlorine dissolved in small quantities of water is normally used.
d. Chlorine-dioxide
In this method, chlorine dioxide gas if produced by passing chlorine gas through sodium
chloride solution. The Cl is unstable and reacts as follows:
ClO2 has oxidizing capacity of 2.5 times than that of chlorine and most effective for removal of
taste and odour.
5. Forms of Chlorination
A. Plain Chlorination: Application of chlorine to plain or raw water is called plain

chlorination. Dose of plain chlorination is 0.5 to 1 ppm.
B. Pre Chlorination: Application of chlorine to water before the treatment is called pre-
chlorination. Especially, we use before filtration. Dose adjusted for residual chlorine is
0.1 to 0.5 ppm.
Advantages of pre-chlorination are as follows:
i. Reduces the quantity of coagulants required.

ii. Reduces the bacterial load in the filters.
iii. Helps in maintaining and running filters longer.
iv. Controls the algae and planktons in the filter.
v. Eliminates taste and odour.

C. Post Chlorination: Application of chlorine after the treatment is called post
chlorination. It is applied after filtration and before entering into the distribution pipe.
Doses are adjusted so that it leaves residual chlorine of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm.
D. Double or Multiple Chlorination: When raw water contains large number of
bacteria, chlorine is applied at two or more points in purification process; it is called
double or multiple chlorination. It consists of pre-chlorination just before raw water
enters the sedimentation tank and post-chlorination as water leaves the filter and
before entering the distribution system.
E. Breakpoint Chlorination: (Already described)
Breakpoint chlorination has the following effects:
i. It removes taste, colour and manganese.

ii. It has adequate bacterial effect.
iii. It has the desired residual chlorine.
iv. It completes the oxidation of ammonia and other compounds.
F. Super Chlorination: Application of chlorine beyond the breakpoint chlorination is

called super chlorination. Generally 2 to 3 ppm beyond the breakpoint is applied for
super chlorination. Super chlorination is done during epidemics in a certain locality
due to water borne diseases.
G. De-chlorination: The process of removing excessive chlorine from water before
distribution to the consumers to avoid chlorine taste is known as de-chlorination. It is
done either by aeration or adding sodium thiosulphate, sodium metabisulphate,
sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphate, ammonia and sulphur dioxide.
6. Factors affecting efficiency of Chlorination
The killing efficiency of bacteria due to chlorination is called bacterial efficiency of chlorine,
which depends upon the following factors:
1. Turbidity: If turbidity is present in water, bacterial efficiency is decreased. Hence, for

effective chlorination, water should be turbidity free.
2. Presence of metallic compound: More chlorine is utilized to oxidize metallic ions;
therefore, bacterial efficiency is decreased.
3. Ammonia compound: Efficiency is decreased due to formation of combined available
chlorine but it lasts for longer time.
4. pH value of water: If pH is high in water, efficiency is low because HOCl is formed at pH
of 5 to 7.
5. Temperature: If temperature decreases, amount of free available chlorine is decreased so
the efficiency of chlorine is decreased.
6. Time of contact: For effective chlorination, time of contact should be at least 30
minutes.
7. Type, condition and concentration of micro-organism: For bacteria, efficiency is high for
viruses, more concentration is required and efficiency is low. Efficiency becomes low if
the favourable condition for bacteria is available and concentration of bacteria is high.

8. Softening
1. Purpose
The main purpose of softening is to remove hardness in water.
2. Removal of Temporary Hardness
1. Boiling Method
It is costlier and not used in public water supply.
( )
( )
The insoluble precipitates and are removed by sedimentation.
2. Lime Treatment Method
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The insoluble precipitates and are removed by sedimentation.
3. Removal of Permanent Hardness
1. Lime Soda Method
In this process, lime and sodium carbonate is added to water either separately or together and
allow them for 30 – 60 minutes for reaction. It removes permanent as well as temporary
hardness.
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
and ( ) are insoluble and removed by sedimentation. Other products are soluble and do
not impart hardness. This process is economical but a large quantity of sludge is formed and
requires skilled supervisor.
6.8.3.2 Zeolite Method
It is also called Base Exchange or Ion Exchange process. It also removes temporary hardness and
is a commonly used process. Zeolite is a natural or artificial granular substance. Natural zeolite
is green in colour and artificial is white and commonly used is also called Permutit. The
commonly used Permutit is sodium aluminium silicate ( ) and Permutit is manufactured from
feldspar, kaolin and soda.
( )
( )
If we denote Permutit as (Z is anionic component of the exchanger), then,

( )
{ ( ) {

Here, the calcium and magnesium are replaced by sodium and water and the sodium salts
formed are soluble in water but do not impart hardness and water is softened. The product
and remains in zeolite.
Regeneration of Zeolite:
Due to continuous use of zeolite, it exhausts and zeolite doesn’t work. It can be checked by
soap solution test. If it gets exhausted, it needs regeneration by passing NaCl in it.
It can be written as:
()( )
Advantages:
1. No sludge is formed.
2. Compact and small space is required.
3. Because of simplicity in operation, no skilled persons are required.
4. Hardness may reduce to zero.
5. No other chemicals are required.
Disadvantages:
6. Not suitable for turbid water and water containing Fe and Mn.
7. Growth of bacteria occurs in zeolite if water contains organic matter.
3. Ionization Process/Demineralization Process
It is a costlier process and used in industries. It is very similar to zeolite process but metallic ions
are exchanged for hydrogen ions and substances like zeolite is used. The substances may be:
1. Acidic Resin (removes alkali substances) e.g. zero karb, organolite, catex etc.
2. Base Resin (removes acidic substances)
If we denote these resins as H2R (H means hydrogen and R means organic part of the
substance), then,
()
)
) ( ) (
(
In above process, Ca and Mg are replaced by H and water gets softened.

Disadvantages:
The disadvantage of this process is that acids are formed. If the quantity of acid is high, it is
removed by:
i. Diluting treated water with raw water.

ii. Neutralizing treated water with alkaline substance.
iii. Absorbing excessive acids by de-acidic substance ‘D’ regenerated with sodium or caustic
soda.
( )
( )
( )
( )
9. Miscellaneous Treatments
1. Aeration
1. Purpose
 Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide and due
to algae and related organisms.
 Aeration also oxidizes iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water,
removes carbon dioxide and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other
flammable gases.
 Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water escape into
atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric oxygen takes their place in
water provided the water body can expose itself over a vast surface to the atmosphere.
This process continues until an equilibrium is reached depending on the partial
pressure of each specific gas in the atmosphere.
2. Types of Aeration
I. Free Fall or Gravity Aerators

II. Spray Aerators
III. Diffused Aerators
IV. Mechanical Aerators
Gravity Aerators
In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of water is exposed to
atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.

Fountain Aerators/Spray Aerators
These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a fine spray. Each nozzle
is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36 l/h. Nozzle spacing should be such that each
m3 of water has aerator area of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.
Injection or Diffused Aerators
It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed at the bottom to release
fine air bubbles from compressor unit. The tank depth is kept as 3 to 4 m and tank width is
within 1.5 times its depth. If depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3 to 4 m depth below
water surface. Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is required for 1 litre of
water.
Mechanical Aerators
Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or at the surface.
2. Removal of Iron and Manganese
Iron and manganese mix into water through soils either in suspension, hydrated oxides, soluble
or insoluble form. Ferric hydroxide is insoluble and ferrous bicarbonate is soluble in water.
When iron and manganese > 0.3 ppm, they become objectionable. Insoluble ferric hydroxide is
removed in sedimentation.
Effects:
i. Produces taste, odour and brown red colour.

ii. Stains on clothes, corrosion and clogging of pipes by accumulation of precipitates.

iii. Causes difficulty in various industrial processes.
Methods:
(a) By aeration: In this case, aeration is done before sedimentation.
Fe:
( )
Fe (HCO3)2:
( )
( )
Mn:
(b) By adding lime

(c) Passing over manganese zeolite
3. Removal of Colour, Odour and Taste
Colour, odour and taste are due to organic and vegetable matters, industrial waste, domestic
sewage, dissolved gases and minerals, microorganisms, etc.
Methods: The colour, odour and taste are removed to some extent in sedimentation with
coagulation followed by filtration, pre chlorination, etc. For effective removal of these,
following methods are used:
a. Aeration
b. Activated carbon treatment: It is the commonly used process for removal of colour,
odour and taste. Activated carbon is manufactured by heating saw dust, paper mill
waste etc. at 500°C in a closed vessel in controlled condition of burning at 800°C. It is
readily available in market in powder or granular form. The powder is mixed with water
before filtration and granular is used as filter materials. It absorbs organic matters and
removes colour, odour and taste.
c. Using Copper Sulphate: It is available in powder or crystal form and easily soluble in
water. It is applied in the distribution system or reservoirs to 0.3 to 0.65 ppm. Is
application is common in swimming pools.

CHAPTER – VII
RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
1. System of Supply
Water may be supplied to the consumers by the following two systems:
i. Continuous System
ii. Intermittent System
1. Continuous System
If water is supplied to the consumers for all 24 hours a day from a system of supply, it is called
the continuous system. It is the best system and has following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Water is available whenever needed; hence, there is no need of private storage tank.
2. No stagnant in the pipe at any instant; hence, fresh water is always available.
3. Adequate quantity of water is available at any time for fire fighting.
Disadvantages:
1. More wastage of water if the people do not possess any civic sense and do not
understand the importance of water.
2. If there is leakage in the system, large volume of water is wasted because of long
duration of flow.
3. On repairing, supply may be interrupted during supply hours.
2. Intermittent System
If water is supplied to the consumers only during fixed hours of a day from a system of supply, it
is called the intermittent system. It is the most common system adopted in Nepal. The timings
are fixed normally in the morning or evening. Timing may be changed to suit climatic and
seasonal conditions.
Advantages:
1. Useful when either sufficient pressure or quantity of water is not available at the source
to meet the demand.
2. At various distribution zones of the city, water can be supplied by turn.
3. Repairing works can be done in non-supply hours.
4. Leakage in the system causes less wastage of water because of small durations of flow.
Disadvantages:
1. Inconvenience to customers because they have to remain alert to collect the water
during supply periods.

2. Requires domestic storage in small tanks in each house to use water for non-supply
period. Consumers may not have sufficient storage, which may cause insanitary
condition.
3. No water is available for fire fighting in non-supply hours and before the system is on,
fire may cause huge damage.
4. During the non-supply time, taps left open unknowingly or due to negligence, which
leads to more wastage of water.
5. Greater diameter of pipes is required because full day supply should be done in a short
period.
6. During non-supply time, pressure in the line may fall below atmospheric pressure,
which may induce suction of external maters and soil through leak joints.
2. Clear Water Reservoirs
According to use, reservoirs may be classified into clear water reservoirs and service reservoirs
or distribution reservoirs.
Clear water reservoir is used to store the filtered water until it is pumped or conveyed into the
service reservoirs for distribution. The minimum capacity must be 14 to 16 hours average daily
flow and it should be divided into two or more compartments to enable repairing or cleaning.
The reservoirs are generally built under ground or half below ground level and half above the
ground level depending on site conditions and constructed with masonry or RCC. Hence,
construction is similar to masonry or RCC reservoir.
3. Service Reservoirs
1. Purpose and Construction
It is used to store the filtered water from clear water reservoir and constructed before
distribution system. It is constructed with masonry and RCC. Elevated types are also popular.
These service reservoirs should be designed for balancing storage, breakdown storage and fire
storage.
Purpose:
i. To absorb the hourly variations in demand.

ii. To maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains.
iii. Water stored can be supplied during emergencies.
Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs:
 Should be located as close as possible to the centre of demand.

 Water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to permit gravity flow at an
adequate pressure.
Types of Reservoirs:
i. Underground reservoirs
ii. Small ground level reservoirs
iii. Large ground level reservoirs
iv. Overhead tanks

Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the summation of:
i. Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be stored in the reservoir for
equalising or balancing fluctuating demand against constant supply is known as the
balancing storage (or equalising or operating storage). The balance storage can be
worked out by mass curve method or analytical method.
Mass Curve Method:
A mass diagram is the plot of accumulated inflow (i.e. supply) or outflow (i.e. demand) versus
time. The mass curve of supply (i.e. supply line) is, therefore, first drawn and is superimposed
by the demand curve. The procedure to construct such diagram is as follows:
 From the past records, determine the hourly demand for all 24 hours for typical days
(maximum, average and minimum).
 Calculate and plot the cumulative demand against time, and thus plot the mass curve of
demand.
 Read the storage required as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between demand
and supply line as shown in fig.
 Repeat the procedure for all the typical days (maximum, average and minimum), and
determine the maximum storage required for the worst day.
Analytical Method:
 Calculate the cumulative hourly demand and cumulative hourly supply for 24 hours in
tabular form.
 Find the hourly excess of demand (deficit), excess of supply (surplus), total demand
(TD) and total supply (TS).
 Then note the maximum cumulative surplus (MCS) and maximum cumulative deficit
(MCD).
 Then the capacity of balancing reservoir (CBR) is given by:
If TS > TD, CBR = MCS + MCD – TS + TD and
If TS ≤ TD, CBR = MCS + MCD
ii. Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the storage
preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
electricity, or any other mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total
storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may be
considered as enough provision for accounting this storage.
Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
iii.
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1
to 4 per person per day is sufficient to meet the requirement.
The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.

2. Types of Service Reservoirs
i. Surface Reservoirs
ii. Elevated Reservoirs
iii. Stand Pipes
Surface reservoirs are made mostly of masonry or concrete. Common practice is to line surface
reservoirs with concrete, gunite, asphalt or asphaltic membrane to check leakage of water.
Sometimes, these reservoirs may be built underground, especially when they are of large size,
and a park may be constructed on its top. Surface reservoirs should be located at high points in
the distribution system, so that gravity supply can be done directly. In some cases however,
pumps are used to pump water, from the clear water storage surface reservoir to the elevated
distribution reservoir.
Elevated reservoirs are constructed at an elevation from the ground level and made of RCC or
steel. These are also called overhead tanks and the shapes may be circular, rectangular, egg
shaped, spherical, elliptical, etc. Any elevated reservoir consists of inlet, outlet, overflow for
water; ladder for accessibility, manhole for inspection, ventilator for air circulation, a water level
indicator and a lightening rod.
Standpipe is also an elevated reservoir usually constructed of steel (sometimes RCC), circular in
plan and up to 15 to 30 metres high. The main function of standpipe is to increase pressure in
the distribution system by creating extra storage in the tank above the elevation required to give
the necessary pressure for distribution. The diameter of these tanks varies from 10 to 15 m. The
volume of water stored in the tank above the entrance of the outlet pipe can be used and hence
it is the useful storage of standpipe.
5. Layout of Distribution System
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to
supply water from its source to the point of usage.
Requirements of Good Distribution System
1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient
pressure head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer
lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
Layouts of Distribution Network
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe
networks; any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place.

7.5.1 Tree System/Dead End System
In this system, one main pipeline through the centre of the area to be served and from both
sides of the main, the sub-mains takes off. The sub-mains are further divided into several
branches from which service connections are given to the consumers.
It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.
Advantages:
a. Relatively cheap.
b. Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.
c. Pipe lying is very simple.
d. Pipes are designed only for population likely to be served by them.
Disadvantages:
e. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.

f. The water available for fire fighting is low because supply can neither be increased not
be diverted.
g. Many scour valves are required and less successful in maintaining satisfactory pressure
in the far areas.
7.5.2 Grid Iron System
One main pipeline through the centre of the are to be served and from both sides of the main,
the sub-mains are take off in perpendicular direction; then, branch lines inter connect all sub-
mains so that water can be circulated through the entire distribution system.
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.

Advantages:
a. Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.

b. In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other
direction.
c. Fire fighting water can be made easily available by diverting water from the other
sections to the affected area using valves.
Disadvantages:
d. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
e. More number of cutoff valves and longer length of pipers are required.
f. Overall cost is high.
7.5.3 Ring System

The supply main is laid along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
Thus, this system also follows the grid iron system with the flow pattern similar in character to
that of dead end system. So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.
Advantage:
 Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.

 Suitable for cities having well planned roads and roads in circular or rectangular pattern.
 The length of main pipe is larger and hence, large quantity of water is available for fire
fighting.
Other advantages and disadvantages are as same as in grid iron system.
7.5.4 Radial System
In this system, the area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the distribution
reservoir kept in the middle of each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially ending towards
the periphery.
Advantages:
1. It gives quick service.

2. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
3. High pressure of distribution.
Disadvantage:
 The major disadvantage of this system is that it requires more reservoirs. All other
advantages and disadvantages are same as in grid iron system.

6. Design of Distribution System
It consists of the design of the pipeline and its network adopted in the system. For design, the
following points are considered:
a. Type of flow (continuous or intermittent)

b. Method of distribution (gravity or pumping)
c. Probable future demand
d. Life of pipes etc.
1. Pipe Hydraulics
Hydraulic design of pipes is required to determine the size of the pipes between inlet and exit
just to carry sufficient amount of water. For design of pipes, the following two basic equations
of hydraulics are used:
a. Continuity Equation
b. Bernoulli’s Equation
(Read descriptions on your own)
HEAD LOSS IN PIPES:
a. Major Loss – Darcy Weisbach Formula, Manning’s Formula, Hazen William Formula
b. Minor Losses – due to sudden enlargement, sudden contraction, at the entrance, at the
exit, due to gradual enlargement or gradual contraction, at the bend, due to various pipe
fittings
(Read descriptions on your own)
2. Design Criteria
1. Discharge: Discharge should be sufficient to meet the future demand. Pipelines are
designed for 2.5 to 3 times the average demand. Generally peak factor is taken as 3 to 4
in Nepal.
2. Pressure: Pipelines are designed for sufficient residual pressure so that it reaches to the
desired height. The residual head for single storey is taken as 7 m, two storeys is 12 m
and three storeys is 17 m and it shouldn’t be greater than 22 m above the ground level.
In rural areas of Nepal, the minimum available head should be 5 m above the public tap
level.
3. Minimum size of pipes: The lower the diameter the head loss is greater. For
population less than 20,000, minimum diameter of distribution pipe is 10 cm and for
greater than 20,000, it is 15 cm. For dead end pipes, it is 10 cm, for distribution and
service pipe 10 cm and 20 cm for house connections but for grid pipes and dead end
pipes less than 10 cm may be used.
4. Velocity: If velocity is low, larger diameter pipes are required and problem of silting
may occur. If velocity is high, cost becomes high in pumping and cost of pipes and
fittings will increase to bear extra pressure. On the other hand, higher the velocity,
smaller the diameter which leads to loss of energy. Hence, it shouldn’t be too low and

not too high. It is taken as 0.6 to 3 m/s in pumping and 0.6 to 1.5 m/s for gravity supply.
5. Gradient: No need of gradient in pressure flow pipes but pipes should be laid below the
HGL. The gradient of HGL shows the residual head available at any selected point
hence high slop of HGL means head loss is high.
3. Design Steps
1.Survey and preparation of contour maps and plans

 Land between treatment plant and distribution area is surveyed and contour maps and
plans showing the position of the roads, streets, lawns, parks, position of underground
service lines are prepared and then studied.
2. Tentative layout
 The tentative layout of various zones are marked (includes tentative mains, sub mains,
branches, valves, service reservoirs, etc.).
3. Calculation of discharge
 Based on population and type of distribution zone and fire demand.
4. Computation of pipe diameters
 Hazen-Williams Formula is common.
 Pipelines are designed for discharge of 2.25 to 3 times the average rate of demand.
5. Computation of available residual pressure head
 If the available residual head is lesser or too high, pipe size should be revised.
4. Hardy Cross Method
Analysis of water distribution system includes determining quantities of flow and head losses
in the various pipe lines, and resulting residual pressures. In any pipe network, the following
two conditions must be satisfied:
1. The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero, i.e. there can
be no discontinuity in pressure.
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving that junction; i.e. the
law of continuity must be satisfied.
Based on these two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network analysis is the Hardy- Cross
method.
Hardy-Cross Method
This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a way that the
principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction. A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable magnitude.
If Qa is the assumed flow and Q is the actual flow in the pipe, then the correction d is given by
d=Q-Qa; or Q=Qa+d
Now, expressing the head loss (HL) as

HL=K.Qx
We have the head loss in a pipe
=K. (Qa+d) x
=K. [Qax + x.Qax-1d + .........negligible terms]
=K. [Qax + x.Qax-1d]
Now, around a closed loop, the summation of head losses must be zero.
SK. [Qax + x.Qax-1d] = 0
Or, SK.Qax = -SKx Qax-1d
Since, d is the same for all the pipes of the considered loop; it can be taken out of the summation.
a
x
= -d. SKx Qax-1
Or, d=-SK.Qax/ Sx.KQax-1
Since d is given the same sign (direction) in all pipes of the loop, the denominator of the
above equation is taken as the absolute sum of the individual items in the summation. Hence,
Or, d=-SK.Qax/ S l
x.KQax-1 l Or, d=-SHL / x.S
lHL/Qal
Where HL is
the head loss for
assumed flow Qa.
The numerator in the above equation is the algebraic sum of the head losses in the various
pipes of the closed loop computed with assumed flow. Since the direction and magnitude of
flow in these pipes is already assumed, their respective head losses with due regard to sign can
be easily calculated after assuming their diameters. The absolute sum of respective KQax-1 or
HL/Qa is then calculated. Finally the value of d is found out for each loop, and the assumed
flows are corrected. Repeated adjustments are made until the desired accuracy is obtained.
The value of x in Hardy- Cross method is assumed to be constant (i.e. 1.85 for Hazen-
William's formula, and 2 for Darcy-Weisbach formula).

CHAPTER – VIII
CONVEYANCE OF WATER
1. Pipe Materials
Pipe is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either under gravity or under
pressure. When pipes do not run full, they run under gravity, such as in sewer lines. However, in
supply, pipes mostly run under pressure.
Pipe may be made of the following materials:
a. Cast iron
b. Wrought iron
c. Steel
d. Galvanised iron
e. Cement concrete
f. Asbestos cement
g. Plastic
h. Lead
i. Copper
j. Wood
8.1.1 Requirements of Good Material

8.1.2 Types of Pipe Material
In the past, many types of materials have been used in conveying water from one point to
another. Masonry and wood were probably the first materials used. Plastics are the newest, and
are now being used quite extensively.
1. CAST IRON PIPES
These pipes were earlier cast vertically but this type has been largely superseded by spun iron
pipes which are manufactured by spinning or centrifugal action and are now universally used.
The spun iron C.I. pipes are comparatively lighter in weight, longer in length and have
improved metal qualities. These pipes are generally upto 1000 mm diameter and 6 m long and
are classified on the basis of thickness of the pipe barrel as class A and B, each differing from
the other by 10 percent increase in thickness. These pipes can withstand hydraulic test

pressure of 24 kg/cm2. They are strong, durable (life upto 100 years), easy to join and most
commonly used.
Disadvantages:
a) Difficulty in transportation of large sizes

b) Decrease in their carrying capacities with age and with the quality of water transported.
2. WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL PIPES
These are stronger than cast iron, can withstand much higher pressures but are of lighter
sections and hence easier to transport. They are, however, less durable (life upto 50 years), more
liable to corrosion and there is also the difficulty of easy availability of pipe specials viz., joints,
bends, etc. Carrying capacity is also a little less for equal diameter of pipe.
3. CONCRETE PIPES
Concrete pipes are very durable, heavier and can be had in sizes upto 1800 mm. Transportation
costs are much reduced if the pipes are cast in situ. Concrete pipes have low maintenance costs,
are resistant to corrosion and particularly suitable to soft and aggressive (acidic) waters. They,
however, cannot withstand high pressures unless reinforced.
4. PVC PIPES
Today more PVC pipes are being used than any other pipe product.
PVC is very corrosion resistant. It is not a conductor and will not have an electrochemical
reaction with acids and bases that it comes in contact with.
PVC also has a high chemical resistance. While it will react with some chemicals, there are a
large number of chemicals it will not react with, making it an excellent product for industrial
applications.
Because PVC is mostly a 'rigid' pipe product, PVC pipe is an excellent pipe choice for just about
any application that does not require a 'flexible' solution. The most common uses for PVC are:
 Water Distribution
Underground Fire Main Distribution
Gravity Sanitary Sewer Collection
Forcemain Sewage Transmission
Irrigation Mains
Reclaimed Water Distribution
Electrical & Communications Conduit
Numerous Industrial Applications
2. Pipe Joints
1. Purpose

The pipe joints are required to join together pipes which are available in smaller lengths say
6. to 6 m only. The requisites if a jointing material are:
(a) Imperviousness
(b) Elasticity
(c) Strength
(d) Durability
(e) Adhesiveness
(f) Availability
(g) Workability
(h) Economy
2. Types
A. SOCKET AND SPIGOT
This joint is commonly used in case of cast iron pipes. The spigot of one pipe is centred into the
socket of the preceding pipe; tarred gasket or hemp yarn is then wrapped around the spigot,
leaving unfilled the required depth of socket for lead. The gasket or hemp yarn is caulked
tightly home with a yarning tool. A jointing ring or a kneaded-clay ring is then placed around
the barrel and against the face of the socket. Molten pig lead is poured into the remainder of
the socket. Lead is now solidly caulked with suitable caulking tools or hammers of 2 kg weight
around the joint, to make up for the shrinkage of molten metal on cooling.
B. FLANGED JOINT
A gasket of rubber, canvas or lead is introduced between the two flanges of Cast Iron (C.I.)
pipes, which are then tightened with bolts and nuts. Flanged joints are strong and rigid and are
easy to disjoint; as such used where the pipe joints have to be occasionally opened out for
carrying out repair work, as in pumping chambers.

C. EXPANSION JOINT
Expansion joints allow the pipes to expand or contract freely under the changing temperature
conditions. The space between the socket and spigot is filled with an elastic gasket.
D. COLLAR JOINT
E. SCREWED SOCKET JOINTS
This is a simple type of joint used for jointing screwed wrought iron or galvanized iron pipes.
The two ends of the pipes are threaded on the outside and on them a suitable jointing
compound with a grummet of few strands of fine yarn are used before screwing a socket having
corresponding threads from inside.
8.3 Laying of Pipes


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Water Supply Engineering Third Year/First Part

2. Definition of Types of Water

1. Pure and Impure Water

2. Potable and Wholesome Water

i. It should be free from radioactive substance, microorganism, disease causing bacteria,

3. Polluted and Contaminated Water

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 1

Two broad categories of water pollution: a) Point Source b) Non-point Source

1.3 Historical Development of Water Supply System

What is Water Supply System?

Water Supply System

1.4 Objectives of Water Supply System

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 2

1.5 Schematic Diagram of Typical Water Supply System

2. Hilly Area/Rural Area

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 3

6. Components of Water Supply System and their Functions

1. Transmission Line or Transmission Main: Pipeline from intake to reservoir tank.

There are three systems of supply as:

i. Gravity Flow System

(Details will be studied in chapters to come later.)

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 4

River, Stream, Spring, Well,

Main source of water is precipitation.

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 5

 Natural depression filled with water

 Natural/Artificial depression found in plain areas

Two functions: i) To impound water for beneficial use

ii) To retard flood

The water quality is the same as in streams and rivers.

2.2.6 Numerical on Capacity Determination of Impounded Reservoirs

January – 2.97 May – 0.51 September – 4

February – 1.99 June – 1 October – 5

March – 1 July – 2 November – 4

April – 0 August – 3 December – 2.8

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 6

Flow Inflow Cumulative Cumulative

II. GRAPHICAL METHOD

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 7

Determination of Capacity of Impounded Reservoir

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 8

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 9

ii. Surface Spring or Contact Spring

iii. Artesian Spring

2. Non Gravity Springs

1. Open or Dug or Draw or Percolation Well

i. Shallow Open Well

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 10

2. Driven Well or Percussion Well

i. Strainer type Tube Well

2.3.4 Infiltration Galleries and Wells

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 11

4. Selection of Water Source

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 12

e. Sustainable and Safe

(For pictures, refer any standard book.)

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 13

The unit of total water demand is litres/day.

2. Design and Base Periods

i. Survey Year: It is the year in which survey is carried out.

Design Period is selected based on the following:

 Useful lives of the component considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.

Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 14

Suppose, r = growth rate of population