Conventional machines section

Some of the machines in this section are :

Bandsaw - The bandsaw is useful for cutting stock to size and
roughing out shapes. It cuts curved shapes very well.
Belt sander – A belt sander is used to remove rough edges. It makes
use of an abrasive riding belt. Effective on wood, plastic and most
metals.
Drilling machine –
The drill press is mostly
used for drilling holes,
reaming, boring,
countersinking etc.
Power hacksaw – A
type of hacksaw powered
either by it’s own electric
motor or connected to an
engine.
Power hacksaw Drilling machine
• Surface grinder – It is a machine tool used to
provide high precision surface finish. The
grinding wheel rotates in the spindle head, it’s
height adjustable. The workpiece is fed by a
horizontal table positioned below the grinding
wheel.

Surface grinder
• Slotting machine - Similar to
a vertical shaper. The most
common use is to machine
straight, flat surfaces.
Slotting machine

And several other machines for sheet metal work, electroplating etc. , as
well as callipers, micrometers etc. for measurement and testing.
 The 2 principal conventional machines on which we are focusing are the
lathe and milling machines.

Lathe Machine
Lathes are designed for precisely machining relatively hard materials. With
their inherent versatility, they are used in a wide range of applications, and can
machine a broad range of
materials.

These lathe machine

removes material from a
rotating work piece via
the linear movements of
various cutting tools,
such as tool bits and drill
bits.
Operations performed on a lathe
• Turning – The diameter of a part can be reduced to desired dimension.

• Facing - A lathe can be used to create a smooth, flat, face very

accurately
perpendicular to the axis of a cylindrical part.

• Parting - Deeper and narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for

making narrow grooves and for cutting off parts.

• Drilling - A lathe can also be used to drill holes accurately concentric

with the centerline of a cylindrical part.

• Boring - Boring is an operation in which a hole is enlarged with a single

point cutting tool.

• Threading - External threads can be cut with a die and internal threads
can be cut with a tap.
 Types of lathe
• Centre lathe / bench lathe / engine lathe - The most basic type of lathe.

• Toolroom Lathe - Lathe optimized for toolroom work. It has all of the
best optional features that may be omitted from less expensive models, such
as a collet closer, taper attachment, and others.

• Turret lathes and capstan lathes - Used for repetitive production of

duplicate parts.

• Multispindle lathe - Multispindle lathes have more than one spindle and
automated control.

• CNC lathe - CNC lathes are rapidly replacing the older production lathes
due to their ease of setting and operation. The part may be designed by the
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) process, the resulting file uploaded
to the machine, and once set and trialled the machine will continue to turn
out parts under the occasional supervision of an operator.
 Milling machine
A milling machine is a machine tool used for the shaping of metal and other
solid materials. Its basic form is that of a rotating cutter, which rotates about
the spindle axis (similar to a drill),
and a table to which the workpiece
is affixed. In contrast to the lathe
machine, in the milling machine
the workpiece moves
longitudinally against the rotating
cutter. Milling machines may be
operated manually or by CNC.
Types of milling cutters
In vertical mills, milling cutters
with solid shafts are usually used.

End mills are designed for cutting

slots, keyways and pockets.

Two fluted end mills can be used

to plunge into work like a drill.
Ball end mills can produce a
fillet.
 Operations done on Milling machines

• Roughing
• Finishing
• Drilling
• Boring (a) Rough (b) Finish (c) Counter boring
• Slotting
• Key way cutting
• Gear cutting
• Spur
• Bevel
• Worm
• Helical
 Computer and Numerically Controlled
Machines
Numerically Controlled (NC)
NC is the operation of M/c tool by a series of coded instructions consisting of
numbers, letters of the alphabets and symbols, which the MCU (Machine Control
Unit) can understand.

Computer numerically controlled (CNC)

When numerical control is performed under computer supervision, it is called

computer numerical control (CNC). Computers are the control units of CNC
machines. A programmer enters some information in the program, but the computer
calculates all necessary data to get the job done.

For both NC and CNC systems, working principles are the same. Only the way in
which the execution is controlled is different. Normally, new systems are faster,
more powerful, and more versatile.
 Various popular CNC control systems
1. ECS
2. LECS
3. NUM
4. SELCA
5. MARPOSS
6. Z-16
7. FANUC
8. FAGOR
9. FIDIA
10. DECKEL
11. SINUMERIC
12. HINUMERIC
13. HEIDENHAIN A CNC Milling center by DECKEL
14. GILDEMEISTER
 Important terms related to CNC machining
• Machine Zero - Machine zero is a point at the origin of the machine’s
coordinate measuring system. All the Axis movements and other dimensions are
measured from this point. It is similar to the origin of coordinate measuring
system.

• Machine reference point - It refers to the initial point of return for the
purpose of measuring/feedback systems. Whenever a CNC machine is switched
on the feedback system has to be initialized by referring this point on every axis.

• Work Zero - This is the origin for the measuring of dimensions of workpiece.
The programmer is free to select it anywhere on the drawing.

 Absolute measuring system - In this measuring system all the dimensions

are made from the work zero, which defined. The machine control uses work
zero as the reference point to position the tool during program execution. The
main advantage of programming in absolute system is that any point can be
readily changed without affecting subsequent dimensions.
• Incremental measuring system - The movements are based on the change
in position between two successive points. It expresses the relative distance
between the current location and the next position. This type of measuring system
is called Incremental Measuring system. The main advantage of this system is that
sum of the dimensions must always be zero if start point and finishing point is
same at the end of programming which makes it easy to check a program.

• Axis designation (conventions) - Axis designation for each type of machine

tool is suggested in the EIA (Electronic Industries Association) RS 274-B standard.
This conforms to ISO Recommendations R831. The nomenclature of the three
main axes (X, Y AND Z) is based on the “Left hand rule”. The thumb indicates the
orientation of the X-axis; the index finger indicates the Y-Axis, and the middle
finger points in the direction of the Z-axis.

 Tool and tool offset - The T function is used to call the particular tool and
tool offset in the program. The tool offset is used to correct the values entered in
the coordinate system preset block. Using the tool offsets, it is easy to set up the
tools and to make adjustments in part size.
• Spindle speed - The spindle speed is the rotational frequency of the spindle of the
machine, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). The preferred speed is
determined based on the material being cut. Using the correct spindle speed for the
material and tools will greatly affect tool life and the quality of the surface finish.

 Feed rate - Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced
against the workpiece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning
and boring (millimeters per revolution). For milling it is expressed in units of distance
per time for milling (millimeters per minute).

 Cutting Speed - Cutting speed may be defined as the rate (or speed) that the
material moves past the cutting edge of the tool , irrespective of the machining
operation used — the surface speed.
• Process Chart -

S.no. Process process M/C time tool remark

no.

• Tool Chart -
S.no. Process Tool Tool length Tool radius Tool Tool insert
no. description material specification
 The construction of CNC machines
1. Elements of motion transmission

• Ball-screws and nut assembly

In a CNC machine, the connection between the screw and the nut is through
an endless stream of re-circulating steel balls, replacing sliding friction
threads with rolling friction. Advantages are higher efficiency, reversibility
and reduction in wear and tear.
 Hydrostatic slideways
In the hydrostatic slideways air or oil is pumped into small pockets
machined into slides which are in contact with the slideway.
2. Computers
CNC machines use an on-board computer that allows the operator to read,
analyze, and edit programmed information. In CNC machine, computer
works on a binary principle, 0 for information and 1 for processing. Special
built-in software compiles the user entered program (in code language) into
machine language and the machine moves the tool by its servomotors.
3. Control systems

There are two types of control systems on CNC machines:

• Open loop (less accurate)
• Closed loop (more accurate)
The open loop control system does not provide positioning feedback to the control
unit. Since this control system only counts tool movement pulses and cannot
identify discrepancies in positioning, it is slightly inaccurate.
In closed loop control system, the electronic movement pulses are sent from the
control to the servomotor, enabling the motor movement. Movements are detected
by a feedback device (transducer), which can send a signal to the control for
checking after each step.
4. Drive motors

The drive motors control machine slide movement on CNC equipment. Types used :
1. Stepper motors (convert a digital pulse into a small rotation, mostly used in
applications where low torque is required )
2. DC servo motors (rotate in response to the applied voltage, used to drive lead
screw and gear mechanisms, provide higher-torque output)
3. AC servo motors (controlled by varying the voltage frequency to control speed,
more power than a DC servo, used to drive a lead screw and gear mechanism )
4. Fluid servo motors (variable speed motors, produce more power, in the case of
pneumatic motors, than electric servomotors)

5. Tool changers

Several different cutting tools are used to produce a part. The tools must be replaced
quickly for the next machining operation. For this reason, the majority of NC/CNC
machine tools are equipped with automatic tool changers. They allow tool changing
without the intervention of the operator.
An automatic tool changer grips the tool in the spindle, pulls it out, and replaces it
with another tool. Tool changers are equipped for either random or sequential
selection.
In random tool selection there is no specific pattern of tool selection.
In sequential tool selection, the tools must be loaded in the exact order in which
they are called for in the program.
WORKING OF CNC MACHINES
 1. Modes of Operation
Automatic operation
1. Memory operation – The required program is already registered in the
CNC memory. We can just select the program and start the operations
2. MDI Operation - In the MDI mode, program can be inputted in same
format as normal programs and executed from the MDI panel. Mostly
used for simple test operation.
3. Program restart - Restarting of a program for automatic operation from
an intermediate point, a Sequence No. is assigned to a block. MDI also
usable as High Speed Program Check Function.
4. Manual handle interruption - Movement by manual handle operation
can be done by overlapping it with the movement by automatic
operation
5. Sequence number search - Function is used to search for a sequence
number within a program and to start or rescue the program from the
block having that sequence number.
 • Manual operation
1. Jog feed
In the jog mode, a feed axis and direction selection switch on the machine
operator’s panel moves the tool along the selected direction. The jog feed
rate can be adjusted with the jog feed-dial rate.
2. Incremental feed
In the incremental (STEP) mode, pressing a feed axis and direction
selection switch on the machine operator’s panel moves the tool one step
along the selected axis in the selected direction. Each step can be 10, 100,
1000 times he least input increment ( minimum distance moved by tool).
3. Manual handle feed
In the handle mode, rotating the manual pulse generator on the machine
operator’s panel can move the tool. The minimum distance the tool is
moved when the manual pulse generator is rotated by one graduation.
4. Manual absolute on and off
When the switch is turned on, the distance the tool is moved by manual
operation is added to the current coordinates.
 2. Processing of CNC programs
1. Determination of the sequence of operations required in machining
process ( involves examining the shape features of the components to
be produced) .
2. Selection of cutting tools, order of use corresponding to the sequence
of operations and determination of feeds and cutting speeds for each
operation.
3. Settings of program auxiliary functions, including tool changes,
spindle starts and stops, coolant on and off and so on.

3. Analyses of drawing for CNC programming

3.1 STUDY OF DRAWING
• Verification of drawing quadrant/angle~ 1st and 3rd
• Unit of measurement: mm and inch
• Raw material size
• Drawing zero/work piece zero
• Marking of all the turning points (where profile is changing) & working points
(for drilling, boring etc.)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROGRAMMING
Numerical control machine are programmed by means of a series of coded
instructions, commonly entered into the controller using manual programming.
Each set of instruction codes that machine acts upon is called NC block and is
terminated on the program by means of an end character (EOB) that corresponds
to the carriage return. A typical block of instruction is of the following form:

N001 G80 X75 Y65 Z10 F60 S160 T01M03 EOB

CODE TYPES
Sequence Number (N-Codes)
This is an identification number for each block of instructions and increases
sequentially through the program.
Preparatory Function (G-Codes)
The G-codes are the codes that position the tool and do the actual work . These
codes are largely standardized and can be seen in the provided G-code table.
Many of the preparatory functions can indicate canned cycles.
Co-ordinate codes
These indicate the co-ordinates for the tool movement. Four to five axis machines
can have the following axes.

Cartesian Co-ordinates Angular positions for the Circular Interpolation

Cartesian axes about Cartesian axes
X A I
Y B J
Z C K

Feed rate (F-code)

This specifies the feed rate for the operation. The units may be mm per minute or
mm per revolution (indicated by the G-code used), with the decimal point implied
at a fixed position from the right.
Spindle speed (s-code)
This specifies the spindle speed to be used for the operation.
Tool Number
This indicates to the controller which tool is to be used for the operation. In case of
tool adaptors with multiple tool slots, the machine just switches to the next tool
without removing the earlier one form the adaptor.
Miscellaneous Code (M-code)
These codes program various auxiliary functions on the machine tool. The
miscellaneous function may be acted upon at the start or the end of the motion
described by a block of instruction. With word address format, information need not
be repeated in successive blocks if it is to remain the same for subsequent blocks.

ISO MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS ( M-Codes )

CODE FUNCTION
M00 Program stop, spindle and coolant off
M01 Optional programmable stop
M02 End of program-often interchangeable with M30
M04 Spindle on CCW
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M07 Coolant supply No. 1 on
M08 Coolant supply No. 2 on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamp
M11 Unclamp
M13 Spindle on, CW + Coolant on
 M14 Spindle on, CCW + Coolant on
M 20 – 29 Unassigned
M30 Program stops at end of tape+ tape rewind
M31 Interlock by-pass
M40-M45 Gear Changes; otherwise unassigned
M90 Reserved for user
M99 (Subroutine call) Reserved for user

G - Codes
(Fanuc Machine Control)
G CODE FUNCTION
G00 Positioning (Rapid traverse)
G01 Linear Interpolation (Cutting feed)
G02 Circular interpolation /Helical cutting CW
G03 Circular interpolation/Helical cutting CCW
G04 Dwell Time
G17 XY plane selection
G18 ZX plane selection
G19 YZ plane selection
G20- 21 Input in inch and mm respectively.
G28 Return to reference point
G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G41 Cutter compensation left
G42 Cutter compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation + direction
G44 Tool length compensation – direction
G53 Machine coordinates system selection
G54 - 59 Work co-ordinate system 1 -6 selection
G80 Canned cycle cancel
G81 Drilling cycle, spot boring
G82 Drilling cycle, counter boring
G83 Peck drilling cycle
G84 Tapping cycle
G85 Rough Boring cycle
G86 Finish Boring cycle
G90 Absolute command
G91 Incremental command
G92 Programming of absolute zero point
G94/98 Feed per minute
G95/99 Feed per rotation
G96 Constant surface speed control
 Points of difference b/w CNC and Conventional
Machines
CNC Machine Conventional Machine
CNC machines can be used Conventional machines are difficult
continuously for long intervals and only operate for several hours at a stretch.
need to be switched off for occasional The operator has to continuously focus
maintenance. on the job at hand.
CNC machines can produce several Resemblance of the products formed
products, all similar and dead accurate depends on the skill of the operator.
Visible differences may occur
Less skilled/trained persons can Highly skilled operators are required
operate the CNC machines. to work on conventional machines
CNC machines can be updated by Chances for major improvement in the
using improved software to drive the same conventional machines are very
machines. less.
One person can supervise several CNC One person cannot operate more than
machines, and they can be left to work one conventional machine at a time
themselves.