An Historical Overview

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WHAT DO OBJECTS DO WHEN

NO FORCE IS ACTING ON
THEM ??????
Aristotle (384 -322 B.C.) :

of CELESTIAL objects (Moon, planets, stars, Sun) was

circular - without beginning or end.

of TERRESTRIAL bodies (apple, smoke, you) was

for light things to rise up and heavy things to fall

objects would seek their natural resting places: apple on the

ground and smoke high in the air like the clouds.
no need for gravity to explain this motion – it is JUST
NATURAL – what a life for physics student!!!!

was imposed motion – result of forces that pushed or pulled.

Important: violent motion had an external cause, it was not natural to the objects
 THOUGHT FOR NEARLY 2000 YEARS: IF AN OBJECT WAS MOVING, IT IS
AGAINST ITS NATURE AND THE FORCE OF SOME KIND WAS RESPONSIBLE.
NO FORCE – NO MOTION,

No wonder that most thinkers before the 16th century consider it obvious that the Earth
must be in its natural resting place and assumed that the force large enough to move it
was unthinkable, it was clear that Earth did not move.
Conclusion: EARTH is THE CENTER OF UNIVERSE

And in this intellectual climate of the 15th century Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
formulated, in secret to escape persecution, his famous HELIOCENTRIC THEORY –
idea that was extremely controversial at the time - the Earth is just a small planet and
together with other planets circle around Sun.

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Only in the final days of his life he sent his ideas to the printer. The first copy of his
work, De Revolutionibus, reached him on the day of his death.
Lets look at animated model of solar system and universe in general
Remember when we talked about speed of our Earth:

• 0.4 km/s (0.25 mi/s) rotating around the center of the Earth
• 30 km/s relative to the Sun
• at about 250 km/s relative to the center of our galaxy
• together with the whole galaxy at 600 km/s (1.34 million mi/h)
in the direction of the constellation Hydra.).

Here is a wonderful animation

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0jHsq36_NTU
 One of his most outspoken supporters was Galileo Galilei, the foremost scientist of late-
Renaissance Italy.

It took the genius of Galileo to claim that NO FORCE is needed to keep an object in the motion
(straight-line, constant speed)

Galileo argued (brainstorm – just pure thought – no experimental proof) that

forces only CHANGE THE MOTION, not cause the motion
Left alone the things would travel in a straight line with constant speed forever.
It is the force of friction that slows them down.

Aristotle: It is the nature of the ball to come to rest.

Galileo: In the absence of friction the ball would keep on moving.
No force needed to maintain the motion. The force changes the motion – velocity.

Every object resists change to its state of motion/velocity. To change it,

the force must act on it. We call this resistance INERTIA.
Aristotle’s views of motion were
discredited almost 400 years ago. So
why do we still tend to follow his
thinking about motion?
 Forces throughout History
On Christmas day in the year Galileo died

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was born.

By the age of 24 he gave the world
his famous three laws of motion.

Together, Galileo and Newton discredited the Aristotelian view of

motion and developed the theories that still form the basis of
mechanics today.
 Before we talk about force, let us
introduce inertia, mass and weight.
Inertia is resistance an object has to a change of velocity.
• sort of laziness (inerzia – laziness in Italian)

Mass is numerical measure of the inertia of a body unit: 1 kg

• more mass – harder change of velocity
is a measure of the amount of matter in the object
• depends only on the number and kind of atoms in it.
• doesn’t depend on the location of the object
• If the object has mass of 1 kg here on earth it would have the mass
of 1 kg on the moon, but it would weigh only one-sixth as much.

Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object.

• acting straight down toward the center of the earth (moon …)
• depends on the location of the object.
• depends on its mass and acceleration due to gravity:
W = mg unit: 1 N
 Forces
• An interaction between two objects involving a push or a pull
• Causes objects to accelerate

NOTE: ALL forces are INTERACTIONS between 2 objects

Forces are vector quantities, having both direction and magnitude.

unit: Newton (N) = kg m/s2
1 N is the force that causes a 1-kg object to accelerate 1 m/s 2.
The net force – resultant force Fnet or ΣF
is the vector sum of all forces acting on ONE object.

the object accelerates as if only one force – net force is applied

Applied forces Net force

Check your understanding
 Galileo’s Law of inertia
"How many ways can you state Newton's First Law?"

if ΣF = 0, a = 0  no change in velocity, then

An object continues in motion in a straight line at constant speed or at

rest unless acted upon by a net external force."
Remember: net force (sum of all forces acting on an object)
causes acceleration /change in velocity of that object

BIG IDEA 1: Zero NET force means no acceleration / no change in

velocity. Balanced forces will not cause acceleration.

BIG IDEA 2: An object is in equilibrium (i.e. it has zero net force)

whenever it has constant velocity (including constant velocity of 0).
 Translational equilibrium

Definition:
If the net force acting on an object is zero, the speed and direction of the
motion will not change (the object won’t accelerate). If it was at rest it
will stay at rest, and if it was in motion it will continue the motion with
constant velocity (in the straight line at constant speed) .

We say the object is in EQUILIBRIUM.

 how to apply concept of translational equilibrium:
1. Two forces are acting on a body. Describe the motion of the body. 8N 8N

Since the net force on this body is zero, it is in equilibrium:

- which means that the object is not accelerating
- the body is either at rest, or is moving with a constant velocity

2. object is moving at 3 m/s in a straight line. 8N F

Two forces are acting on it. Find F
Since velocity is constant, the body is in translational equilibrium:
- which means that the object’s acceleration is zero
- therefore net force is zero
● F = 8N, 00

equilibrium math:
if = 0 then = 0, change in velocity = 0
and velocity is constant or zero

if velocity is constant or zero, then = 0, and = 0

Six force are acting on an object. What can you tell
about the motion of that object? Is it at rest? Is it
moving? If it is moving, how?
 The tendency of moving objects to continue in motion can have
very unpleasant consequences.

Seat belts: Passenger and the vehicle share the same destiny.
The seatbelt provides the force to keep the driver
from moving out of the position

No seat belts: The passengers maintain their state of motion unless

there is a force strong enough to stop them.
The passengers can become projectiles and
continue in projectile-like motion.
 In a car accident, the safest place to be is in the car; yet in a
motorcycle accident, the worst place to be is on the motorcycle.

Car: Wear your seat belt.

Remember it's the law
- the law of inertia.

Law of inertia would safe

you from sharing the fate of
the motorcycle itself .
No functioning straps: the ladder in motion would
continue in motion. Assuming a negligible friction
between the truck and the ladder, the ladder would
slide off the top becoming a projectile.
Imagine you have two baskets of strawberries. You place one on
the passenger seat of the car, near the car door. The other you
forget on top of the car. Oops!
Like pancakes for the French club meeting. Still remember
You then drive out of the parking lot, turning at a constant speed.

What happens to each basket of strawberries, and why?

Although the car accelerates (changes direction!) , the baskets
will tend to continue in the same straight line motion unless a
force stops them.
 The acceleration of an object produced by a net force on that
The acceleration of an object produced by a net force on that
object is directly proportional to the net force applied, and
object is directly proportional to the net force applied, and
inversely proportional to the mass
inversely proportional to theof theofobject.
mass the object.
Direction of the Direction
acceleration is in the direction
of the acceleration of the
is in the direction netnetforce,
of the force,

∑ ⃗
𝐹
⃗=
𝑎
𝑚

 greater mass
– greater inertia (laziness)
– smaller acceleration
 more force
– greater acceleration
If net force is zero, acceleration is zero,
velocity is constant (or zero).
The object is in translational equilibrium.
 Even Spiderman has the weight, right?
Pulling him downward.
what propels him upward?

His muscles? Hm…. No!!!!!!

Just imagine Spiderman hanging

on a rope.
Can his muscles help him to climb
up into the thin air?????

To understand what propels us forward

( or, if someone choses backward) we’ll
introduce third Newton’s law and come
back to this problem later.

YOU CAN’T
TOUCH WITHOUT
BEING
TOUCHED

Whenever objectWhenever
A exerts a force on object B, object B exerts an
object A exerts a force on object B, object B exerts an
equal in magnitude and and
equal in magnitude
opposite in direction force onforce
opposite in direction object A. A.
on object

In every interaction, the forces always occur only in pairs,

BUT these forces act on two different bodies.

Common definition:
- to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
is very dangerous, so please do not use it. It is not defined what is
action and what is reaction, so it looks as if we were talking about
one body, but that’s not true.
These forces act on different bodies.


You push the water backward,

the water pushes you forward.
 action: tire pushes road
reaction: road pushes tire

action: foot pushes the ground

reaction: the ground pushes the foot that
propels the turtle forward


action: cannon pushes the cannonball

reaction: cannonball pushes the cannon (recoil)
The same force F (opposite direction), BUT

cannonball:
a = F
m

= F
cannon: a
m
action: earth attracts ball
a = F/m = 9.80 m/s2
reaction: ball attracts earth
aE = F/ME ≈ 0
Koka, the clever horse, taught physics by Mrs. Radja says:
You taught me Newton's third law:
to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
It says that if I pull on the wagon, the wagon pulls me back. If
these two forces are equal and opposite, they will cancel, so
that the net force is zero, right?
So the wagon can never move! Since it is at rest, it must
always remain at rest! Get over here and unhitch me, since I
have just proven that Newton's law says that it is impossible
for a horse to pull a wagon!

Please help me!

Why don’t action and reaction forces cancel? Should I find myself a
less educated horse, or should I teach better?
Only the forces that act on the same object can cancel.
Koka: when the ground pushes forward on the horse harder than the cart pulls backward
Koka accelerate forward. (Fnet = F1’ – F2’ > 0)
Cart : accelerates forward when horse force is greater the frictional force

When we want to find acceleration of one body we have to find all forces
acting on that particular body.
Forces between roller-skaters

If one skater pushes another, they

both feel a force.
The forces must be equal and
opposite, but the acceleration will
be different since they have
different masses.

The person with a smaller mass will

gain the greater velocity.
A roller-skater pushes off from a wall

The force on the girl causes

her to accelerate backwards.

The mass of the wall is so large compared to the girl’s

mass that the force on it does not effectively cause
any acceleration.
It looks unbelievable but it is true.

when they clinch forces are equal – you would expect that
when they clinch forces are equal – would you expect that?
again, the same force but different acceleration

Sudden acceleration can kill

Our organs are not firmly attached to anything.

When head is hit it gains acceleration. But the brain was not hit.
It continues with the same velocity. Skull and brain crash!!!!!
again, the same force but different acceleration
 So what propels him upward?
Upward force exerted by the WALL !!!!
Friction force!!!!!
He is pushing wall downwards and the wall is …..

𝑚𝑔
𝐹 𝑓𝑟

𝑚𝑔
1. How many horizontal forces are acting on the person?
Label them

2. Draw free body diagram for the cart?

Tension is the force that the end of the string exerts on whatever is
attached to it. Direction of the force is along the rope.

Normal force (unfortunate name – reaction force)

The force which is preventing an object from falling
through the surface of another body. That’s why it is normal
(perpendicular) to the surface .
 Friction force Ffr
Friction is a force that is created whenever two surfaces move or try to move across each other.
 Friction always opposes the motion or attempted motion of one surface across another surface.
¨ Friction is dependent on the texture/roughness of both surfaces.
¨ Friction acts parallel to surface in direction opposed to intended motion.
 Friction is also dependent on the force which presses the surfaces together, normal force.

Fn
Ffr pulling force

mg
Ffr = m Fn
coefficient of proportionality μ is called coefficient of friction

 m has no units
 it is a measure of surface-to-surface roughness
N
 depends on characteristics of both surfaces

different values for static and kinetic coefficient of friction (tables). kinetic μ is smaller than static μ. You
probably noticed that once you moved something from rest it becomes easier to push around.
 surface-on-surface μs μk
hook velcro-on-fuzzy velcro >6.0 >5.9
avg tire-on-dry pavement 0.9 0.8
grooved tire-on-wet pavement 0.8 0.7
glass-on-glass 0.9 0.4
metal-on-metal (dry) 0.6 0.4
smooth tire-on-wet pavement 0.5 0.4
metal-on-metal (lubricated) 0.1 0.05
steel-on-ice 0.1 0.05
steel-on-Teflon 0.05 0.05

You should keep in mind that it isn't possible to give accurate values for the
coefficient of frictions due to changing surface smoothness. For example, not
all pieces of metal have the same surface smoothness. Some that are highly
polished may be more slippery than others that are pitted or scratched. These
values are just meant to give you the approximate values.
 Origin of friction :
1. Mechanical interlocking of "rough" surfaces
– teeth on the surfaces

2. Microscopic level –
On an atomic scale, few surfaces are very smooth. Bumps far
smaller then we can see loom like mountains to an atom.

At the points of direct molecular contact, electrons become confused. Thoughts of an

They forget which object they belong to, and wind up trying to orbit electron with an
nuclei in molecules of both! The resulting bond is called molecular identity crisis...
adhesion or a “cold-weld.”
Each time they form a bond between uneven surfaces, force is required
to break this bond
 Air Resistance and Terminal Velocity

If a raindrops start in a cloud at a height h = 1200m above the surface of the earth they
would hit us at 340mi/h; serious damage would result if they did. Luckily:
When an object moves through air or any other fluid, the fluid exerts drag force on the
moving object. Unlike the friction between surfaces, however, this force depends upon
the speed of the object, becoming larger as the speed increases. It also depends upon
the size and the shape of the object and the density and kind of fluid.
A falling object accelerates due to the gravitational force, mg, exerted on it by the
earth. As the object accelerates, however, its speed increases and the drag on it
becomes greater and greater until it is equal to the weight of the object. At this point,
the net force on the falling object is zero, so it no longer accelerates. Its speed now
remains constant;
it is traveling at its terminal speed. Terminal speed occurs when the weight force
(down) is equaled by the drag force (up).
Terminal velocity of table tennis ball is 9 m/s after approximately 10 m. A basketball has a
terminal velocity of 20 m/s after approximately 47 m.; the terminal velocity of a baseball is 42
m/s after approximately 210 m. Skiers increase their terminal velocity by decreasing the drag
force. They hold their bodies in egg shape and wear smooth clothing and streamlined helmets.
How do skydivers control their velocity? By changing body orientation and shape, sky divers
can both increase and decrease their terminal velocity.
(60 m/s after approximately 430 m)

Parashoot – 5 m/s after approximately 3 m.

AND THE RAINDROP?

How fast is a raindrop traveling when it
hits the ground? It travels at 7m/s (17 mi/h) after falling approximately only 6 m. This is a
much “kinder and gentler” speed and is far less damaging than the 340mi/h calculated without
drag.
 Draw all forces that act on a parachutist. Find and acceleration for

a. parachutist that has just stepped out of the airplane.

𝑚𝑔
Σ⃗
𝐹 =𝑚 ⃗
𝑔 𝑎=
𝑚
mg
a=g

b. parachutist is falling at increasing speed.

𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Σ⃗
𝐹 =𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎=
air 𝑚
=
Σ a<g
mg

the speed is still increasing, and therefore air friction too until

c. parachutist is traveling downward with constant velocity (terminal velocity)

air
Fnet = 0
= a=0
Σ=0
mg
One of the most significant intellectual achievements in the history of thought. It is universal
– it applies to all objects regardless of their location anywhere in the Universe.

Every object in the universe attracts every other object. The force between
two objects is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between their centers. The force acts along the
line joining the two objects.

m1m2 r
F=G 2
r
G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/ kg2 – “Universal gravitational constant”
the same value anywhere in the universe - very small value
– no significant forces of attraction between ordinary sized objects.
 The force between an object of mass m close to the Earth surface and the
Earth

mEm mE rE – Earth’s radius

F = G 2 = G 2 m = gm mE – Earth’s mass.
rE rE
mE
g = G 2 = 9.80m/s 2
rE

Force between an object of mass m close to the Earth surface and the Earth
is commonly called weight W = mg.
Now we can see that the gravitational acceleration g is a consequence of the
gravitational force. Its magnitude depends on how far is the object from the
center of the earth.
Double the distance from the centre, r = 2 rE , g is 4 times less,
g = 2.45 m/s2 , and so is weight
 STEPS
The most important one first
Draw free body diagram/force diagram
Draw free body diagram/force diagram
Draw free body diagram/force diagram
sketch of an object and all forces acting on that object
No velocity on that diagram, no acceleration on that diagram,
only object (circle or a box, and you can write mass in it)
and all forces acting on that object
 Second step is to find net force

Third step is to apply second newton’s law

 3. Identify forces that act on the system
How to draw a force diagram
Label them on diagram
1. Choose ONE body to be isolated
dog or the cart?  decision: cart
⃗
𝐹𝑛 F
 2. Make a simple sketchdog
of the system – point system
F
fr


ΣF
mg

4. Find out the net force by

adding the force vectors

5. Apply Newton’s second law


Fnet = ma
 So

1. Add all vectors to get net force

2. Apply newton's second law

=m

VECTOR EQUATION ??????

Are you kidding me??

Don’t worry, there is an easy way out.

 Separate everything
into vertical and horizontal components/motion

And remember that magnitudes of forces are positive

Howard, the soda jerk at Bea’s diner, slides a 0.60-kg root beer from the end of the counter to a
thirsty customer. A force of friction of 1.2 N brings the drink to a stop right in front of the
customer.
a) What is the acceleration of root beer?
b) What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the glass and the counter?
c) If the glass encounters a sticky patch on the counter, will this spot have a higher or lower
coefficient of friction?
Vertical direction: Horizontal direction:
Fn Vertical acceleration = 0 Resultant force = friction force
Vertical force ΣF = 0 ΣF = Ffr =1.2 N
Ffr ΣF = ma
0.60 kg Fn – mg = 0
1.2 = 0.60
Fn = mg = 6.0 N = 2.0 m/s2
mg = 6N

Ffr = Fn
Ffr / = 1.2/6.0
= 0.20 (no units)

c. higher
 ΣF
We read this as : SUM of (all) forces,
not as SOME of forces
Although they sound the some, there is a
HUGE difference

Thank you Mr. Bruhn for clarifying possible

confusion -
A boy exerts a 36-N horizontal force as he pulls a 52-N sled across a cement sidewalk at
constant speed. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the sidewalk and the metal
sled runners? Ignore air resistance.

W = mg = 52 N m = 5.2 kg

Vertical direction:
Vertical acceleration = 0
Vertical ΣF = 0

Fn–mg = 0

Fn = 52 N
Horizontal direction:
v is constant,
a = 0 and ΣF = 0
Ffr = F = 36 N Ffr = μ Fn
Ffr / = 36/52
= 0.69
A force of 40.0 N accelerates a 5.0-kg block at 6.0 m/s 2 along a horizontal surface.
a. How large is the frictional force?
b. What is the coefficient of friction?

m = 5.0 kg F = 40.0 N a = 6.0 m/s2

Vertical direction:
a = 0, so ΣF = 0

Fn = mg = 50 N → Ffr = μ Fn = 50 μ

horizontal direction: a = 6.0m/s2

ΣF.= ma
F – Ffr = ma
40.0 – Ffr = 30
Ffr = 10 N
Ffr = μ Fn
Ffr / = 10/50
= 0.2
Luke Skywalker starts to pull a sled with Princess Leia across a large ice pond with the
force of 100 N at an angle of 30.0° with the horizontal (with nails on his shoes). Find
normal force and initial acceleration if the weight of sled and Princess Leia is 800 N and
the friction force is 40 N.
mg = 800 N m = 80 kg F = 100 N Ffr = 40 N

free body diagram components

vertical direction :
ΣF=0
F sin θ + Fn–mg = 0
50 + Fn = 800
Fn = 750 N

Horizontal direction:
ΣF= ma
F cos θ – Ffr = ma
86.6 – 40 = 80 a
a = 0.58 m/s2
INCLIN
E
 An object is on incline θ.
Fn
We know that acceleration perpendicular to the surface is zero;
Ffr acceleration can be only parallel to incline.

Therefore the most natural choice of coordinate

system / components is:
● one parallel to the incline Fn
● one perpendicular to the incline.
Ffr

Now instead of three forces,

we have four forces

direction perpendicular to the incline:

ΣF = ma = 0 → Fn–mg cos θ = 0 → Fn = mg cos θ

Force pressing the object into the surface is not full weight mg, but only part of it,
So the normal force acting on the object is only part of full weight mg: Fn = mg cos θ
If the surface is horizontal: θ = 00 →
Fn = mg

If the object is in free fall not pressing the surface: θ = 900 → Fn = 0

A cute panda, m = 60 kg, is sliding down an iced incline 30 0.
The ice can support up to 550 N. Will bear fall through the ice?
If the coefficient of the friction is 0.115,
what is the acceleration of the bear?

m = 60 kg
θ = 300
= 0.115
g = 10 m/s2

Perpendicular direction:
Parallel direction:
ΣF = ma = 0
ΣF = ma
Fn - mg cos θ = 0
Fn = 520 N < 550 N
mg sin θ – Ffr = ma
ice can support him, but he should
300 – 60 = 60 a
not eat too much
a = 4 m/s2
Ffr = μ Fn = 60 N
cute panda is speeding up!!!!
 Question:
How does the apparent weight of a person in an elevator
depend on the motion of that elevator?

What will the scale show if the elevator is

1. at rest or moving up with constant speed
2. speeding up ( ↑ )
3. slowing down ( ↓ )
m = 65 kg
Newton’s 3. law:
Force with which the person acts on the scale (reading of the scale) is
equal to the normal force on the person.
So, if we find normal force we know the
reading of the scale, so called APPARENT WEIGHT
1. draw free body diagram 2. choose upward positive 3. apply Newton’s 2. law : ΣF = ma
+

Fn 1. elevator is at rest or moving up with constant speed

Fn – mg = ma = 0 → Fn = mg = 650 N

mg apparent weight = weight = 650 N

Fn 1.2. elevator is speeding up: ( ↑ )

Fn – mg = ma → Fn = mg + ma = 845 N
 apparent weight > weight
mg the scale would show more, and you would feel heavier

Fn 1.3. elevator is slowing down: ( ↓ )

 Fn – mg = ma → Fn = mg + ma = 650 N – 195 N = 455 N

mg apparent weight < weight
the scale would show less, and you would feel lighter
A system of two cables supports a 150-N ball as shown.
a) What is the tension in the right-and cable?
b) What is the tension in the horizontal cable?

𝑇1
𝑇2

mg=150N x: ΣF = 0
T1 cos 300 – T2 = 0 T2 = 260 N

y: ΣF = 0
T1 sin 300 – 150 = 0 T1 = 300 N
WHEN THERE ARE TWO BODIES
YOU HAVE TO DRAW TWO BODY
DIAGRAMS !!!!!!
Two blocks are connected by a string and pulley as shown. Assuming that the string and pulley are
massless, find
a) the magnitude of the acceleration of each block
b) tension force on the blocks

the same string – the same tension

the same acceleration, except that 110 g accelerate down, and 90 g accelerate up.

ΣF = ma a is up
T – mg = ma
T – 0.9 = 0.09a first equation

ΣF = ma a is down
mg – T= ma
two equations with two unknowns 1.1 – T = 0.11a second equation
T – 0.9 = 0.09a (1)
1.1 – T = 0.11a (2)

(1) + (2): 0.2 = 0.2 a ⟹ a = 1 m/s 2

T = 0.09a + 0.9 ⟹ T = 0.99 N
A 10-kg block is connected to a 40-kg block as shown in the figure. The surface on which the
blocks slide is frictionless. A force of 50 N pulls the blocks to the right.
a) What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the 40-kg block?
b) What is the magnitude of the tension T in the rope that connects the two blocks?

As these two objects are connected with the

same rope, tension is the same and acceleration
is the same for two objects.

ΣF = ma
T = 10a a is to the right

50 – T = 40a a is to the right

2 EQS with 2 unknowns

50 – 10a = 40a a = 1 m/s2

T = 10a T = 10 N
 Please do now:

Draw Free body diagram

for object A and object B:

Block A, with a mass of 10 kg, rests on a 30° incline. The coefficient of

kinetic friction is 0.20. The attached string is parallel to the incline
and passes over a massless, frictionless pulley at the top. Block B,
with a mass of 8.0 kg, is attached to the dangling end of the string.

The acceleration of B is:

Click me