GROUP 2

MINERALS

CVE104
 GROUP 2
MEMBERS

Agtutubo, Kia Mae

Anggol, Jason
Awiten, Jonard Angelo
Cortez, Gwyneth Alison
Estal, Deidre Isabelle
Flaminia, Ronel Francis
Leona, Myka Shane
Morales, Francis Vergel
Ochoa, Michelle
Pareja, Allan
Tuling, Ivy Grace
Identification of Minerals

A mineral is a natural inorganic substance with a definite

structure and chemical composition.

The appearance of a well-crystallized mineral is

representative of its atomic structure.
Methods to Identify
Minerals
Rocks and minerals are identified by megascopic methods, i.e.,
MEGASCOPIC only with the naked eye, a low-power hand lens, or a magnifying
01. METHODS glass.

The first approach in such an analysis is to see a very thin section of

ANALYTICAL
02. METHOD
the specimen by means of a diamond saw.

X-RAY ANALYSIS Useful for fine-grained minerals such as clay minerals.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Chemical analyses of varying degrees of complexity, ranging from

simple tests with hydrochloric.

BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS Used for metallic ores.

 SIGNIFICANCE
Civil Engineers are required to determine some sort of
Earth materials that can be used to construct buildings, roads,
dams, and other infrastructure. In 1793, John Smeaton
discovered a modern method to produce hydraulic lime for
cement. He used limestone (composed of calcium carbonate)
containing clay that was fired until it turned into clinker, which
was then ground into powder. Calcite (calcium carbonate)
minerals are Earth inorganic substances that are used in
cement and concrete ensuring building stability and solidity.
Furthermore, there are still possibilities for the engineer to
discover other types of minerals which could be used for
additional aggregates in construction infrastructures. Indeed,
the identification of minerals could serve as research data
analysis for the engineers to determine possible minerals that
could be used for aggregates.
Physical Properties
of Minerals 1 COLOR AND STREAK

SOURCE: (2009 Revision)

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclef
indmkaj/http://www.vawaterwellassociation.or
g/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Munsell-
sample-from-the-munsell-website-
CIPA00011_599.pdf
 2 HARDNESS (H) 3 CLEAVAGE

https://www.rocksmineralscollections.com/cleavage-collection.php
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mohs-
relative-hardness-scale-examples-of-minerals-of-
each-hardness-level-and-common_tbl1_328831112
Tendency for a mineral to break along a certain direction.
3 FRACTURE
CONCHOIDAL UNEVEN

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fgeologypics.com
https://kaiserscience.wordpress.com/2020/07/31/cleavage-and-fracture/
%2F140429-
magnetite-uneven-fracture/
2%2F&psig=AOvVaw0WLcv4NgTDxWZdUCVUtFOd&ust=1664017773091000&s
ource=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCPClt7zjqvoCFQAAAAAdAAAAAB
AD
SPLINTERY
HACKLY

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen-academic.com
%2Fdic.nsf%2Fenwiki https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
%2F9817993&psig=AOvVaw0_jhSGzNLZ1uFATY42dZ21&ust=166401896209500 %2Fflagstaffmineralandrock.org%2Ffracture-in-mineral-identification
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 4 TENACITY 5 CRYSTAL FORM

The ability to withstand crushing, tearing, bending

 Brittle
 Malleable
 Sectile
 Ductile
 Flexible
 Elastic

6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Ratio of a weight of given mineral over the

https://cdn.britannica.com/73/105673-050-78E58296/crystal-systems.jpg

Weight of water with the same volume as the

Mineral @ .
 7 LUSTER
NONMETALLIC
METALLIC

8 DIAPHANEITY
https://opengeology.org/historicalgeology/tools-of-historical-geology/earth-materials-mineral-
identification/
• Translucent
VITREOUS GREASY ADAMANTINE
https://opengeology.org/historicalgeology/tools-of-historical-geology/earth-materials-mineral-
identification/ • Transparent
SUBMETALLIC • Opaque

PEARLY SILKY RESINOUS

https://opengeology.org/historicalgeology/ https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fearthscience.xyz
tools-of-historical-geology/earth-materials- %2Fmineral_classification&psig=AOvVaw2k44HlrF13glweM7DJxz_U&ust=1
mineral-identification/ 664023108203000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAwQjRxqFwoTCNCQm
6T3qvoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
Rock-Forming
Minerals
Minerals that are the main constituents of rocks are called
rock-forming minerals. Despite the fact that there are a huge
number of minerals known occurring on earth the majority of
rocks on earth are composed of 5 or 6 minerals. The variation
in the proportion amongst these rock-forming minerals
formed the various rocks

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

A. Silicates
B. Oxides
C. Carbonates
D. Sulfates
SILICATES

chlorite feldspar micas olivine

COLOR: green COLOR: white (muscovite), black (biotite), impure HARDNESS: 6
COLOR: white, reddish, yellowish (impure)
HARDNESS: 2-2.5 colorations LUSTER: glassy
HARDNESS: 6
FRACTURE & TENACITY: nonelastic, platy HARDNESS: 2-3 Can be recognized only if found as
FRACTURE & TENACITY: uneven, brittle
LUSTER: pearly FRACTURE & TENACITY: uneven, flexible (elastic) phenocrystals.
LUSTER: vitreous with pearly cleavage
STREAK: pale green to white LUSTER: vitreous to silky Common in dark rocks.
STREAK: white
CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic often as 6-sided flat
CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic/triclinic
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.7 tablets
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.54-2.76
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.76-3.2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
hydro silicates of AI with ferrous iron and Mg KAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
H2K(MgFe)3 Al(SiO4)3 - Biotite
H2KAl3(SiO4)3 - Muscovite
SILICATES
pyroxenes
COLOR: white-green-black
HARDNESS: 5.7
FRACTURE & TENACITY: uneven, brittle
LUSTER: vitreous to pearly
STREAK: white to gray-green
CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic to orthorhombic
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.2-3.6
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Mg, Fe, Ca-Mg, Ca-
Fe, Na-Fe, Al-Fe and Li-Al. Oxides and
silicates
talc
COLOR: white to greenish
HARDNESS: 1
FRACTURE & TENACITY: soft, soapy feel.
Foliated. Massive.
LUSTER: silvery to greasy
STREAK: white to greenish white
CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.7-2.8
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: H2Mg8(SiO3)4
serpentine
COLOR: greenish, usually in varied shades
HARDNESS: 2-5
FRACTURE & TENACITY: often fibrous to
massive. Platy.
LUSTER: greasy-massive, silky-fibrous
CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic (crystals unknown)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.2 – 2.7
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: H4Mg8Si2O4
zeolites
HARDNESS: 3.5-5.
LUSTER: vitreous
STREAK: colorless or white
CRYSTAL FORM: usually require
petrographic methods for identification
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.0 – 2.4
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Na, Al, and Si
oxides and sometimes Ca and H2O
OXIDES

corundum hematite limonite magnetite

COLOR: shades of gray, blue
HARDNESS: 9
FRACTURE & TENACITY: brittle to tough
LUSTER: adamantine, vitreous to dull and
greasy
CRYSTAL FORM: hexagonal
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 4
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Al2O3
COLOR: gray to black
HARDNESS: 5.5-6.5
FRACTURE & TENACITY: platy, no cleavage
LUSTER: metallic to dull
STREAK: red
CRYSTAL FORM: hexagonal
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.5
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Fe3O3
COLOR: brownish to brownish yellow
HARDNESS: 5-5.5
LUSTER: dull to submetallic
CRYSTAL FORM: amorphous. concretionary or
earthy mass
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.6 – 4.0
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Fe2O3 H2O
COLOR: dark gray to black
HARDNESS: 5.5 – 6.5
FRACTURE & TENACITY: uneven. brittle
(poor cleavage)
LUSTER: metallic
CRYSTAL FORM: isometric
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Fe2O4
OXIDES

quartz
COLOR: white, gray, black, rose

HARDNESS: 7

FRACTURE & TENACITY: conchoidal,

uneven, splintery. Brittle to tough

LUSTER: oily to glassy

CRYSTAL FORM: hexagonal

SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.65

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: SiO2
 CARBONATES
calcite
COLOR: colorless or white but may be
stained
HARDNESS: 3
LUSTER: vitreous, if massive, dull
CRYSTAL FORM: rhombohedral
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.71
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: CaCO3
dolomite
COLOR: white to multicolored
HARDNESS: 3.5 – 4
LUSTER: vitreous to pearly
CRYSTAL FORM: rhombohedral (crystals are
rare)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.8 – 2.9
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: CaMg(CO3)2
 SULFATES
anhydrite
COLOR: white but may be tinted
HARDNESS: 3 – 3.5
LUSTER: pearly, glassy, massive-dull
CRYSTAL FORM: orthorhombic. usually
granular to compact masses
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.95
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: CaSO4
gypsum
COLOR: colorless to white, may be tinted
various colors
HARDNESS: 1.5 - 2
FRACTURE & TENACITY: foliated. conchoidal
LUSTER: glassy, pearly white, fibrous-satiny,
massive-dull
CRYSTAL FORM: monoclinic
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.32
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: CaSo42H2O
Clay Minerals TWO VARIETIES OF CLAY MINERAL SHEETS
• silica sheets – consisted of tetrahedrons bound by 4 oxygen
Engineers and geologists are always wary when clay is atoms with silicon atom in the center.
encountered. Clay is known to be associated with the
occurrence of unpredictable phenomena. Research on clay
materials began on 1930.

CLAY MATERIALS ARE ESSENTIALLY:

• hydrous aluminum silicates
• hydrous magnesium silicates
• hydrous silicates
• alumina sheets – consisted of two-row units arrange in
CLAY MATERIALS ARE CRYSTALLINE (WITH A FEW EXCEPTIONS):
octahedrons with O & OH groups surrounding an aluminum
• in engineering, clay is described as containing particles,
atom.
albeit the particles are very small flakes.
• flakes are arranged in case sheets

The lattice structure of clay materials is the basis for their

classification.
3 MAJOR CLAY GROUPS:
• kaolinites
• montomorillonites
• illites
 KAOLINITES HALLOYSITE

• Formed by a single silica sheet and a single alumina sheet. • Occurs in round/flattened tubes.
• Particles forming the kaolinite minerals are generally distinguished • When wet, the material acts as roller bearings
as aggregates of hexagonal flakes. causing flow/creeps
• Kaolinites form stable clays because their structure resist water and • Unsuitable as embankment material
its destabilizing effect.
CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF KAOLINITE
• Kaolinites are moderately plastic and have a larger internal friction • Al2O3·2SiO2·2H­2O
coefficient. • H4Al2Si2O9
• Kaolinites cannot expand or heave (unless they have expandable

impurities) when saturated.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.60-2.68
 MONTMORILLONITES
BENTONITES

• Also known as montmorillonoids

• Consisted of an alumina sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets

• Sheets are loosely bound, hence the material is unstable, especially • An expansive montmorillonite

in the presence of water. • Formed from volcanic ashes

• Montmorillonites expand easily with water, causing the material to • Useful for engineering practice, especially for

have a high plasticity and a low internal friction coefficient preventing leakage

• A drying montmorillonite is subject to high shrinkage and cracking, • Can be mixed with local soil for canal linings

making it an engineering concern CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF KAOLINITE

• Can cause lifting and damage to heavy structures, failure of • (OH)4Si8Al4O20·nH2O

pavements and slabs, and sliding and flowing of slopes (in wet SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.2-2.7
weather).
 ILLITES

• Also known as hydromicas

• The structural unit of this type of clay is similar to a montmorillonite, albeit chemically different.

• Illites frequently form aggregates. The aggregate-like structural has less surface to attract water, thus it has limited hydration

capacity.

• Has lesser expansive properties and have higher internal friction coefficient than montmorillonites.

CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF KAOLINITE

• (OH)4Ky(Si8-y·Aly)(Al4·Fe4·Mg4·Mg6)O20

SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.64 – 3.0

Identification of
Clay Minerals
Electron-microscope observations supply some data on the shape
of clay particles. The atomic arrangement of the clay flakes may be
determined by X-ray diffraction methods which provide means to measure the
spacing of the atomic planes, i.e., sheet thickness.
The distances thus measured are expressed in angstroms. [An
angstrom (symbol A) equals one ten-millionth part of one millimeter, or one
ten-thousandth part of one micron.]
The powdered specimen can be mounted on a small pedestal
connected with a continuously rotating base. The X rays are permitted to hit
the specimen and be diffracted upon a film. Each line of the pattern
represents a reflection from different atomic planes within the mineral. The
thickness of a sheet is 5.05 A and 4.93 A for octahedral and tetrahedral sheets,
respectively. As an average, this makes over 50,000,000 sheets per inch of clay
thickness.
The clay minerals can be identified further by the temperatures
required to extract structural water from their lattices (or for transformation of
one clay mineral into another). The effect of high temperatures on clay
minerals is studied by differential thermal analysis. The amount of water
released by a mineral when heated to a high temperature may be measured
by using a special thermal balance.
This figure gives examples of such curves for
some major types of clay minerals. In the case of kaolinite,
the structural water starts to be released at a temperature of
about 500°C, which corre- sponds to the breaking point of
In differential thermal analysis a small sample of
the endothermic curve (point a, in Fig. 1.7).
the soil material to be tested and calcined alumina (heat-
Where water tightly bound within the lattice in
treated and thus reduced to powdered aluminum oxide)
the form of hydroxyl, OH, anions is released, the bulk of the
are placed in cavities of a nickel block and heated to 1100°C
mineral is reduced to amorphous alumina, AI2O3, and silica,
at the rate of about 12°C/min. In the improved devices, up
Si02. Further heating causes recrystallization, which starts at
to six samples may be tested simultaneously. Calcined
a temperature somewhat below 1000°C, corresponding to
alumina is thermally inert (or inactive; i.e., it does not
the starting point b of the exothermic curve (Fig. 1.7). In the
change its chemical composition when heated) up to
process of recrystallization a 7 isotope of alumina (7 AI2O3)
1100°C. A curve of temperature difference between the
is formed, accompanied by amorphous silica. If the test is
material under test and calcined alumina is drawn on an
continued beyond completion of the exo- thermic curve, still
automatic recording drum, and each kind of material yields
another mineral is formed (mullite, Al.)
a more or less characteristic curve.

Base Exchange
(Cation Exchange)
 When a liquid with a high concentration of one type of base
interacts with a mineral containing numerous types of bases, the
mineral, and the liquid may exchange cations (positively charged
ions), occasionally in a rapid reaction. This is the base exchange—
more precisely, the cation exchange—which occurs more
recurrently in clay minerals than in other minerals.
 Due to their natural tendency to have negative charges, soil clay
minerals, and organic matter use electrostatic forces to attract
cations to their surfaces.
 The phrase "cation exchange" denotes how easily the absorbed
cations can swap places with other cations in the soil solution.
 The cations consequently stay in the soil's root zone and are less
likely to be lost by leaching.
 When soil ion concentrations fall as a result of plant root uptake,
the absorbed cations replace the lost ions
 Solid components in the soil can modify the chemistry of the soil
through cation exchange.
 Since it essentially shows the soil's ability to hold onto a variety of
nutrients in a form that is accessible to plants, it can be used as a
gauge of soil fertility
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)
 The amount of negative charges in the soil that are capable
of absorbing cations from plant nutrients is known as the
cation exchange capacity (CEC).
 As a result, the CEC is a characteristic of soil that identifies
how well it can deliver nutrient cations to the soil solution for
plant absorption.
 The commonly exchangeable cations in clay minerals are
Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, H +, and (NH4) +.
THE EFFECT OF SOIL pH on CEC
 The CEC of soil organic matter and some clay
minerals fluctuates with pH, and in general, the
CEC is lowest at soil pHs of 3.5 to 4.0 and rises
as the pH is raised by liming an acidic soil.
 It is customary to assess a soil's CEC at a pH of
7.0 because CEC can fluctuate significantly with
soil pH.
 Additionally, keep in mind that some positive
charges may exist on some soil mineral surfaces at
low pH, which retains anions (negatively charged
ions) like chloride (Cl-) and sulfate (SO42-).
 Soil and Soil CEC The table displays the usual cation exchange capabilities of

(meq/100 g) soil clay minerals and soils with different textures. Since soil is
Components made up of a variety of different particle sizes (sand, silt, and

CLAY TYPE clay), clay mineral types, and organic matter in varying

Kaolinite 3-15 amounts, its CEC is determined by its main components, soil

Illite 15-40 pH, and other factors.

Montmorillonite 80-100
 The most common way that CEC is stated in soil
SOIL TEXTURE reports is as milliequivalents (meq) of charge
(number of charges) per 100 grams of soil (meq/100
Sand 1-5
g or as cmol/kg when using International Scientific
Fine Sandy Loam 5-10
Units).
Loam 5-15
 The base exchange property varies considerably for
Clay Loam 15-30
different clay minerals.
Clay >30
 The montmorillonites are most cation exchange-
ORGANIC MATTER 200 - 400 susceptible, while the kaolinites are least.
Percent Base Saturation
 The proportion of the CEC that the basic cations Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ occupy is defined as percent base
saturation (BS).
 Acid cations H+ and Al3+ are separated from basic cations. The majority of plant species are hindered
from growing at soil pH levels of 5.4 or less by the presence of Al3+, and the more acidic the soil, the
more harmful Al3+ is present.
 Soils having a high percentage of base saturation are often more fertile:
 They do not have much acid cation Al3+, which is detrimental to plant growth.
 Soils with a high percentage of base saturation have a higher pH and, as a result, are better
buffered against acid cations from plant roots and acidifying soil processes like nitrification, acid
rain, and others.
 They have higher concentrations of the K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ cations, which are vital plant
nutrients that plants must have.
The base saturation percentage is represented as follows:
Significance of CEC and BS

 The CEC of soil influences fertilization and liming procedures. In contrast to low-CEC soils, high-CEC
soils, for instance, retain more nutrients.
 Nutrient loss is more likely to happen through leaching when significant amounts of fertilizers are
administered in a single application to sandy soils with low CEC. In clay soils, however, these nutrients
are far less prone to lose.
 Crop production causes acidification of the soil. As a result of crop production on low CEC soils, soil pH
will decline more.
 The pH variations from crop production are often significantly less in high CEC soils since they are
normally adequately buffered.
 As a result, sandy soils with low CEC levels require lime application more often but at a lower rate than
clay soils.
 Due to the higher quantity of acidic cations in high CEC soils at a given pH, higher lime rates are
necessary to achieve an ideal pH.
 REFERENCES
Dimitri, K. and Judd, W., (1957). Principles of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics.

King, H. M. (n.d.) Minerals. A group of common sheet silicate materials. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://geology.com/minerals/

Lacey, J. A. (2018, November). Wear Properties of Ash Minerals in Biomass. Retrieved September 23, 2022 from
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mohs-relative-hardness-scale-examples-of-minerals-of-each-hardness-level-and-
common_tbl1_328831112.

Madhu. (2022, January 16). What is the Difference Between Cation Exchange Capacity and Anion Exchange Capacity. Compare the Difference Between
Similar Terms. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://www.differencebetween.com/what-is-the-difference-between-cation-exchange-
capacity-and-anion-exchange-capacity/

Saha, U. K. (2012, June 1). Cation Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation. UGA Cooperative Extension. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C1040#:%7E:text=Cation%20exchange%20capacity%20(CEC)%20is,soil
%20solution%20for%20plant%20uptake.