Chapter 5

Trait Theories
Biological Theories of Crime

1. Main assumptions
2. Lombroso
3. Sheldon
4. XYY Male
Biological Theories

• Biological theories tended towards seeing crime as a form of illness,

caused by pathological factors specific to certain classes of
individuals
• “bad” behaviour vs “sick” behaviour
• How can we blame someone for being sick?
• The criminal is radically different from the non-criminal
• We can assume that some people are "born criminals“
• Punishment is inapplicable
Character and physical appearance
• We frequently make inferences about another person’s character
based on his/her appearance
• Ancient Greeks and Romans believed in “physiognomy” (physical
features can reveal a person’s natural disposition)
• “Do not trust beardless men and bearded women”
Physiognomy as Practiced in
Europe

A choleric person has a "hot" temperament, is irritable

and easily roused to anger
A melancolic person is sensive and tends to feel sad
A phlegmatic person is not easily aroused to
excitement and lacks emotion expression
A sanguine person is confident and optimistic
Criminal “Type”

• Most defense attorneys coach their clients on how they should dress
and groom themselves for court so jurors will get the impression they
are not the “type” of a person who would commit a crime
The Underlying Logic

Atavism Inability to
Mental and Learn and Criminal
Physical Follow legal Behavior
Inferiority rules
Defective
genes
Cesare Lombroso (1835 –1909)

• Italian Criminologist
• Lombroso rejected the Classical School (or rational choice model)
• Instead, he stated that criminality was inherited
Lombroso’s Theory

• Bodily constitution indicates whether a person is a “born criminal”

• “Born criminal” violates the laws
• “born criminal” is an “atavism” (throwback to an earlier stage of
human evolution)
• Physical makeup,

mental capabilities,
and instincts of primitive man
Lombroso’s Theory
• Observed the physical characteristics of Italian prisoners and
compared them to Italian soldiers
• Concluded that criminals were physically different
• Lombroso presented a long list of physical characteristics used to
identify criminals
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)
• Asymmetry of the face or head, large
monkey-like ears, large lips, twisted
nose, excessive cheek bones, long
arms, excessive skin wrinkles
• The male with five or more of these
physical anomalies is marked as a
born criminal
• Female criminals are also born
criminals, but they may be identified
with as few as three anomalies
Tattoos

• Were significant to Lombroso

• Most of the “born criminals”
had them
• Obscene nature of their depictions and messages
• Tattoos stood as evidence of both insensitive to physical pain and
immorality
Criminal Women

• Official records, according to which women had a far lower crime

rate than men, can be misleading
• Women are less evolved: naturally vengeful and jealous, their moral
sensibilities are deficient, less sensitive to pain than men
The Female Offender (1897)

• Co-authored with William Ferrero

• Natural selection is the reason for
existence of a greater number of male
than female born criminals
• Men are less likely to breed with
physically deformed women
The Female Offender (1897)

Women have less chances

to transmit their genes
Degenerative traits in
women would be less
likely than such traits in
men to survive over time
Lombroso

• Born criminal is unsuited for society

• Inevitably violate social and legal rules
• Theories of genetic superiority call for
policy in which whole peoples are to be
eliminated from the genetic stock of the
world in order to prevent crime
• Theories of individual genetic inferiority
call for castration of those said to be
habitual criminals in order to prevent
their producing more defective children
who, presumably will be criminals
Frontispiece of
Criminal Man

• Lombroso claimed that

to the trained eye, the
eye of the detective,
these people would
clearly be organized into
categories
• Those in group "A" are
all shoplifters, "B" are
swindlers, "H" are purse
snatchers, "E" are
murderers, etc.
• And supposedly you can
see a man's real
character at a glance.
The New Sciences of Detection

• By the 1880s, urban police forces began developing new techniques

for keeping track of criminals, especially new techniques of record-
keeping
• Most of these techniques were heavily influenced by criminology
Mug Shots

• The mug shot originated in the

1880s, in studies designed to
explore the relationship between
appearance and criminal
behavior
• These men are all forgers. The
New York Police Department
compiled this record in part to
see if all forgers looked alike, or
all murderers looked alike, or if
all burglars had the same facial
features
 Critique of Lombroso

• Theory overlooks the bright and handsome criminals

• Theory ignores those who are ugly and live lives of
productive and cooperative labor
• Theory does not look at the variations over time in crime
rates. Since genes change very slowly, there should be a
steady rate of crime over the centuries. That is not the
case. Crime rates vary dramatically.
Critique of Lombroso

• He was studying the very poor - people whose physical

development had been affected by poverty, poor
nutrition
• Not everyone who breaks the law ends up in prison
• This type of theorising neglects the idea that there is a
"grey area" of criminality - people who commit crimes
but who are not caught and therefore not imprisoned.
Charles Goring (1913)

• Junior medical officer in the English prison service

• Tested the concept of “born criminal”
• He used statistical analysis to determine the presence of 37
Lombrosian characteristics in the criminal population (2,348
convicts)
• Compared criminals with “non-criminal public” (undergraduate
students, soldiers, inmates of two separate hospitals)
• Findings: no evidence of a physical type criminal
Phrenology

• Franz Gall
• Shapes & bumps reveal a
person’s character and mental
capacity
• Each section of brain was
responsible for a different aspect
of human functioning
• External examinations
 Phrenology’s Main Propositions

1. The brain is the organ of the mind

2. The brain is the aggregation of about 30 separate
organs or faculties that function independently
3. The more active an organ, the larger its size
4. The relative size of the organs can be estimated by
inspecting contours of the skull
5. The relative size of the organs can be increased or
decreased through exercise and self-discipline
• Suggests different gradations in severity of
behaviour and that people can change
Body Types

• Criminality is explained by reference to the offenders’ body types

• Genetics, or external observable physical characteristics
W. Sheldon (1898-1977)

Sheldon was an American psychologist who spent his life

observing all the variety of human bodies
As a child he was an avid observer of animals and birds, and
as he grew up, this hobby turned into a strong ability to
observe the human body.

Three types of human body:

Ectomorph:
Endomorph:
Mesomorph:
Endomorph, Mesomorph,
Ectomorph
The ECTOMORPH

• Definitive "Hard Gainer"

• Delicate Built Body
• Flat Chest
• Fragile
• Lean
• Lightly Muscled
• Small Shouldered
• Takes Longer to Gain Muscle
• Thin
Famous Ectomorphs

• Lisa Kudrow, Kate Moss, Brad Pitt, Seth Green, Edward Norton
The MESOMORPH

• Athletic
• Hard Body
• Hourglass Shaped (Female)
• Rectangular Shaped (Male)
• Mature Muscle Mass
• Muscular Body
• Excellent Posture
• Gains Muscle Easily
• Gains Fat More Easily Than Ectomorphs
• Thick Skin
Famous Mesomorphs

• Bruce Willis, Sylvester Stallone

The ENDOMORPH

• The body is round and soft

• The physique presents the illusion that much of the mass
has been concentrated in the abdominal area.
• The hands and feet of the endomorph are comparatively
small, and the upper arms and thighs are often more
developed than the lower parts of the arms or legs.
• The body has a high waist
• The skin is soft and smooth, and the hair is fine
• The head is large and the face broad.
Famous Endomorphs

• John Goodman, Roseanne, Jack Black

Combinations of Body Types

• Very frequently, people fall into mixed categories, where largely, they
are like the mesomoph, but with traits of the ectomorph (such as
small joints or a trim waist), or traits of the endomorph (such as a
tendency to gain fat easily)
Research on body types

• Study-200 boys, Hayden Goodwill Institute. 7 point

somotyping scale, 650 psychological attributes.
Disproportionately mesomorphic--more prone to
delinquency.
• Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck (1950's): 800
delinquents/matched sample of non-delinquents==>
delinquents more likely to be mesomorphs.
Questions/Problems

• Maybe need a tough body to gain acceptance/survive

on the streets.
• Body type and social meaning--the boys were already
judged to be delinquent.
XYY: The super-male

• The extra Y chromosome creates a strong compulsion that

the XYY carrier is at extreme risk of committing violent
crimes
• The findings of some studies that the proportion of XYY
males is prison population (from 1 to 3 %) is higher than in
general male population (less than 1%) is accepted as
evidence of the theory
The XYY “Super-male”

• Patricia Jacobs (1965) examined 198 Scottish prisoners

for chromosomal abnormalities (blood test known
“karyotyping”)
• 12 members of the group displayed XYY (only 3.5% of
prison population)
Foundations of Trait Theory

• The view that criminals have physical or mental traits that make them
different or abnormal
 William Sheldon suggested somatotype (body-build) makes
people susceptible to delinquent behavior
• Mesomorphs – muscular/athletic (aggression)
• Ectomorphs – tall/thin (intellectual)
• Endomorphs – heavy/slow (fences)
Foundations of Trait Theory

• Impact of Sociobiology
 Sociobiology reemerged in the 1970s (Edmund O. Wilson)
• Sociobiologists view the gene as the ultimate unit of human
destiny
• Ensuring of survival (reciprocal altruism)
 Modern Trait Theories
• Each offender is mentally and physically unique
• Humans do not posses equipotentiality (equal potential to
learn and achieve)
• People develop physical or mental traits at birth or soon after
that affect their social functioning over the life course and their
behavior choices
Biological Trait Theories

• Biosocial theorists argue physical, environmental, and social

conditions work in concert to produce behavior

• Learning Potential and Its Effect on Individual Behavior Patterns

 The physical and social environment interact to either limit or
enhance capacity for learning
 Biochemistry and cellular interaction control learning
 Instinct: Some biosocial theorists contend learning is influenced
by instinctual drives (rape or desire of males to control females)
Figure 5.1 Biosocial Perspectives on Criminality
Biological Trait Theories

• Biochemical Conditions and Crime

 Some trait theorists suggest biochemical factors contribute to
criminality
 Chemical and Mineral Influences: Over-or undersupply of certain
chemicals and minerals are associated with antisocial behaviors
 Diet and Crime: (depression, mania, cognitive problems, memory
loss, or abnormal sexual behavior)
 Sugar and Crime: Linked to violence/aggression
 Hypoglycemia: blood glucose falls below necessary levels for
normal brain functioning which has been linked to outbursts of
antisocial behavior and violence.
Biological Trait Theories

• Hormonal influences: Some trait theorists suggest biochemical

factors contribute to criminality (James Q. Wilson)
• Abnormal levels of male sex hormones (androgens) and
testosterone have been linked to aggressive behavior
• High androgen levels increase stimulation and quest for thrills (left
hemisphere of neocortex)
• Hormones may explain why males age-out of crime
Biological Trait Theories

• Premenstrual Syndrome: PMS linked to aggression in females

• Allergies: Defined as unusual or excessive reactions by the body
 Cerebral allergies: affect the nervous system and produce
enzymes which affect behavior
 Neuroalergies – affect the nervous system
• Environmental Contaminants: Lead, copper, cadmium, mercury and
inorganic gases
 Lead levels: Linked to aggressive behavior (Deborah Denno)
Biological Trait Theories

• Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime

 Neurophysiology is the study of brain activity
 Cases such as Charles Whitman (brain tumor) have focused
attention on neurological impairments
 EEG abnormalities have been linked to violent criminals
 Minimal Brain Dysfunction: (abnormality linked to cerebral
structure) is manifested into episodic periods of explosive rage
(PET scans)
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: (ADHD) has been
associated with poor school performance, bullying, and
stubbornness
 Brain Chemistry: neurotransmitters such as dopamine,
norepinephrine, and serotonin in low levels are linked to
aggressive behavior
Biological Trait Theories

• Arousal Theory
 Reaction of brain function in response to environmental stimuli
 “Sensation seekers” may include aggressive/violent behaviors
 Low heart beats rates related to seeking stimulation
Biological Trait Theories

• Genetics and Crime

 Some trait theorists suggest personality traits may be genetically
determined
 XYY theory in the 1970s believed to be associated with violent
crime in males
 Parental Deviance: children inherit criminal tendencies from their
criminal parents.
 Sibling Similarities: The effect appears greatest among same sex
siblings
 Twin Behavior: identical twins (monozygotic) research suggests
criminal tendencies are due to genes and not environment
(findings are controversial)
 Adoption Studies: research supports a genetic basis for
criminality (Mednick)
Biological Trait Theories

• Evolutionary Theory
 The competition for scarce resources has influenced and shaped
the human species
 Impulsive risk-taking behavior becomes intergenerational (passed
down from parents)
 Gender and Crime: Most aggressive males have the greatest
number of offspring and impact the gene pool
• Rushton’s Theory of Race and Evolution: Migration produced
evolutionary changes in behavior (racist undertones)
• R/K Selection Theory: Holds the “R” along a continuum
reproduce rapidly compared to those along the “K” end who
reproduce slowly
• Cheater Theory: suggests a subpopulation of men has
evolved with genes that leads to cunning methods to gain
sexual conquests
Biological Trait Theories

• Evaluation of the Biological Branch of Trait Theory

 Critics charge biological theories are racist and dysfunctional
• Do not explain population differences
 Biological explanations do not account for geographical variations
in crime
 Lack of empirical testing
Psychological Trait Theories

• Defective intelligence (Charles Goring) Crime could be controlled by

regulating reproduction of the feebleminded
• Psychodynamic: Freud suggested people carry the residue of
childhood attachments that guide future interpersonal relationships
 Id (pleasure principal): unconscious biological urges for food, sex
and other life-sustaining necessities
 Ego (reality principal): helps guide the actions of the Id within
boundaries of social convention
 Superego (conscience): the moral aspect of one’s personality
 Conflicts during psychosexual stages of development may lead to
“fixations”
• Anxiety: conscious state that reflects the presence of an
emotional experience by external or internal nervous
energy.
• 1. realistic: if I throw you into pit of poisonous snakes
• 2. moral: like shame and guilt and fear of punishment
• 3. neurotic: your lose of temper, your rationality
• Defense mechanisms: operations of the mind that aim to
ward off anxiety and depression; unconscious distortions of
reality that reduce painful affect and conflict through
automatic, habitual responses
Defense Mechanisms

 Freud's Defense Mechanisms include:

 Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually
false.
 Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target.
 Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint.
 Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others.
 Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications.
 Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the
fear.
 Regression: going back to acting as a child.
 Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the
subconscious.
 Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially
acceptable actions.
Psychological Trait Theories

• Psychodynamics of Abnormal Behavior

 Inferiority complex (Adler): People with a drive for superiority
 Bipolar disorder: Moods alternate between depression and
elation
 Disruptive Behavior Disorder (DBD) includes:
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Defiance toward
authority figures
• Conduct Disorder (CD) More serious and viewed as severely
anti-social
Psychological Trait Theories

• Crime and Mental Illness

 Some personality disorders are referred to as psychosis
 Paranoid Schizophrenia: Delusions of wrongdoing and
persecution
 Despite evidence of mental illness: Recidivism among mentally
disordered is less than the general population
• Behavioral Theory
 Human actions are developed through learning experiences
 Social Learning Theory: Social learning theorists argue that
people learn aggression through life experiences
• Violence is learned via behavior modeling (family interaction,
environmental experiences, and mass media)
 An event that heightens arousal (abuse)
 Aggressive skills (learned aggressive responses)
 Expected outcomes (aggression = reward)
 Consistency of behavior with values (aggression is okay)
Psychological Trait Theories

• Cognitive Theory
 Focuses on how people perceive and mentally represent the
world around them and solve problems
 Sub-categories include:
• Moral development: (Jean Piaget) People obey the law to
avoid punishment
• Humanistic psychology: Self-awareness approach
• Information Processing: How people process, store, encode,
retrieve, and manipulate information
Psychological Traits and Characteristics

• Personality and Crime

 Personality: is the reasonably stable patterns of behavior,
thoughts, and emotions that distinguish one person from another.
 Research has identified personality traits such as extroversion
and introversion (Eysenck)
 Antisocial personality/psychopathy/sociopathy: are antisocial
persons suffering defects or aberrations
 Research on personality: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) measures personality traits and may give clues
to criminality.
Psychological Traits and Characteristics

• Intelligence and Crime

 Some early trait theorists argued that criminals have a below
average IQ
• Nature Theory (Goddard): argues that intelligence is
determined genetically
• Nurture Theory: argues that intelligence is primarily
sociological
 IQ and criminality: Reemerged in 1977 with research by Travis
Hirschi and Michael Hindelang.
 Cross national studies: Research with Danish children suggest a
relationship between IQ and delinquency
 Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray suggest criminal
offenders have an average IQ of 92
 Critics charge the link between IQ and criminality is weak
Figure 5.2 Psychological Perspectives on Criminality
Public Policy Implications of Trait Theory

• Important influence on crime control and prevention programs

 Primary prevention programs seek to treat personal problems
before they manifest into criminal behavior
 Secondary prevention programs provide treatment after one has
violated the law
 Use of mood-altering chemicals such as lithium, pemoline,
imipramine, phenytoin, benzodiazepines are sometimes used to
control behavior