Chapter-Three

DATABASE MODELING

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 Outlines
2

√ Overview Of Database Model

√ Developing An E-R Diagram
√ Entity Types And Key Attributes
√ Initial Conceptual Design Of The
Database System
√ Relationship Degree

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Categories of Data Models
3

Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:

 Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive
data.
 (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
 Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in
the computer.
 These are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner through DBMS
design and administration manuals
Implementation (representational) data models:
 Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many
commercial DBMS implementations
 (e.g. relational data models used in many commercial systems).
fundamental of database system CS@SLU
Cont…
4
Within the history of database systems we have :-
The first generation data models
 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
The second generation data models
 Relational Model
The third generation data models
 Object Oriented Data Models

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Cont…
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Hierarchical Data Model

 The simplest data model
 Record type is referred to as node or segment
 The top node is the root node
 Nodes are arranged in a hierarchical structure as sort of upside-
down tree
 A parent node can have more than one child node
 A child node can only have one parent node
 The relationship between parent and child is one-to-many
Relation is established by creating physical link between stored
records

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Cont…
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Cont…
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Network Data Model

 Allows record types to have more than one parent unlike
hierarchical model
 It doesn't allow many to many relationship between entities
 Like hierarchical model network model is a collection of
physically linked records.

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Cont…
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Relational Data Model
 Viewed as a collection of tables
called “Relations” equivalent
to collection of record types
 Relation: Two dimensional
table
 Stores information or data in the
form of tables -->rows and
columns
 A row of the table is called
tuple--> equivalent to record
 A column of a table is called
attribute--> equivalent to
fields

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 Cont…
9

The Object-Oriented Model

The object-oriented model is based on a collection of objects, like the
E-R model.
 An object contains values stored in instance variables within the
object.
 An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the
object.
 These bodies of code are called methods.
 Objects that contain the same types of values and the same
methods are grouped into classes.
 A class may be viewed as a type definition for objects.

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 Developing an E-R Diagram
10

 Designing conceptual model for the database is not a

linear process but an iterative activity where the
design is refined again and again.
To identify :-
 Entities
 Attributes
 Relationships
 Constraints on the data

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 Cont...
11

Entity
 It is simply specific object or things in the real world to
represent database.
Example: employee, project, department, book, computer
 Entity is represented by rectangular shapes contained an entity
name inside it.

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 Cont...
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Attributes
 Attributes is simply is the characteristics or behaviours that
describe an entity.
 On the above example an employee entity has an attributes
like employee name, salary, age and mobile numbers.
 A specific entity will have a value for each of its attributes.
 For example a specific employee entity may have Name='John
Smith', salary=‘20000', age ='31’, m=‘+251******** ‘
 Each attribute has a value set (or data type) associated with it –
e.g. integer, string, sub range, enumerated type, …

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 Cont...
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Attributes can be:

Single :means each entity have single or unique value.
Example: idno, sex
Composite:The attribute may be composed of several
components. example:
 composite attributes are shown between set braces ().
o name(firstname, middlename, lastname)
o account(faceebook, email)
Multi-valued: An entity may have multiple values for that
attribute.
example, Color of a CAR or PreviousDegrees of a STUDENT,
TELL
 Multivalued attributes are shown between set braces {}.
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 Cont...
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Derived Attributes: A situation where one attributes derived

from another attributes.
(i.e In some cases, two (or more) attribute values are related.
example, the Age and Birth_date attributes of a person.
 For a particular person entity, the value of Age can be
determined from the current(today’s) date and the value of that
person’s Birth_date. The Age attribute is hence a derived
attribute and is said to be derivable from the Birth_date
attribute,

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 Cont…
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 Another example consider course and gpa so in this case gpa is

derived from the mark or point of each subject offered in the
course.
 Attributes is represented by oval shapes and it is connected to
the entity by lines.

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 Cont...
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 Derived attributes indicated by dotted line (….).

 Primary key is underlined.

Relationships
are represented by DIAMOND shaped symbols.
There are two types relationships.
 Weak Relationship is a relationship between Weak and Strong Entities.
 Strong Relationship is a relationship between two strong Entities
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 Cont...
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 if a relationship have it is own attributes it simply known as

associative entity.it is represented by diamond shape enclosed
by rectangular.

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 Entity Types and Key Attributes
18

 Entities with the same basic attributes are grouped or typed

into an entity type.
 For example, the EMPLOYEE entity type or the PROJECT
entity type.
 An entity type may have more than one key.
 For example, the CAR entity type may have two keys:
 VehicleIdentificationNumber (popularly called VIN) and
 VehicleTagNumber (Number, State), also known as
license_plate number
 If each entity type has a collection of entities stored in
database the are called entity set.

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 Key attributes
19

An attribute of an entity type for which each entity

must have a unique value is called a key attribute of
the entity type.
 For example, SSN of EMPLOYEE.
Key attribute
 Uniqueness property must hold for every entity set of the
entity type
A key attribute may be composite.
 For example, VehicleTagNumber is a key of the CAR entity
type with components (Number, State).

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 ER Diagrams, Naming Conventions, and Design Issues
20

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 How to Draw ER Diagrams
21

 Identify all the entities in the system. An entity should appear

only once in a particular diagram. Create rectangles for all
entities and name them properly.
 Identify relationships between entities. Connect them using a
line and add a diamond in the middle describing the
relationship.
 Add attributes for entities. Give meaningful attribute names so
they can be understood easily.

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Initial Conceptual Design of the Database system
22

 Example 1: Build an ER Diagram for the following information:

A student record management system will have the following
two basic data object categories with their own features or
properties:
 Students will have an Id, Name, Dept, Age, GPA and Course
will have an Id, Name, Credit Hours\2019SZA\M2…………4.
 Whenever a student enrol in a course in a specific Academic Year
and Semester, the Student will have a grade for the course.

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Cont…
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So on the above example we have student and course entity, Id, Name, Dept,
Age, GPA is attributes for student entity, Id, Name, Credit Hours\2019SZA\
M2…………4.
Is attributes for course entity, enrol is types of relationships entitled between
student and course. this is the ER diagram for the above informations.

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 Cont…
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Exercise 1
Exercise: Build an ER Diagram for the following information:
A Personnel record management system will have the following two basic data object
categories with their own features or properties:
 Employee will have an Id, Name, DoB, Age, Tel and
 Department will have an Id, Name, Location
Whenever an Employee is assigned in one Department, the duration of his stay in the
respective department should be registered.
Exercise 2
Build an ER Diagram for the following information:
 Patients
 Name, Address, Phone #, Age
 Drugs
 Name, Manufacturer , Expiration Date
 Patients are prescribed drugs
 Dosage, # Days
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 Relationship Types, Relationship Sets, and Structural
Constraint
25

Relationship
 When an attribute of one entity type refers to another entity type.
 Represent references as relationships not attributes
 A relationship type R among n entity types E1, E2, ..., En
 defines a set of associations or a relationship set among entities
from these entity types.
 Relationship instances ri
 Each ri associates n individual entities (e1,e2, ..., en)

 Each entity ej in ri is a member of entity set Ej

 For example consider the relationship work for between two entity (employee
and department) which implies each employee entity work for department.
 Each relationship instance in the relationship set WORKS_FOR associates
one EMPLOYEE entity and one DEPARTMENT entity.
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 26

o In the miniworld represented by Figure, employees e1, e3, and e6 work

for department d1; employees e2 and e4 work for department d2; and
employees e5 and e7 work for department d3

Some instances in the

WORKS_FOR relationship set,
which represents a
relationship type
WORKS_FOR between
EMPLOYEE and
DEPARTMENT.

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 Relationship Degree
27

 It is simply the number of entity types which took part in the

entity relationship is called the degree of relationships.
 There are three different types of degree of relationships, they
are as follows −
 Unary relationship
 Binary relationship
 Ternary relationship
 Example on the above work for relationships is participants
entities of degree two.
 Relationships as attributes
 Think of a binary relationship type in terms of attributes.

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 Unary relationships
28

Unary relationship: it is the relationship between the instances

of a single entity type. It is also called a recursive relationship.
Example
 A person is married is a one-to-one relationship between the
instances of Person entity type of unary relationship.

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 Binary Relationship
29

Binary(degree of 2)
 A relationship type of degree two is called binary.
 Which means the associative relationships between two entity.
 R єE1 x E2
 E.g. Customer has bank Account

Binary relationships may be

1 to 1, 1 to m, m to n

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 Ternary relationships
30

 An association among three different entity types

 R єE1 x E2 x E3
 E.g. A bank employee who has a specific job in a bank branch.

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 Constraints on Binary Relationship
Types
31

Relationship types usually have certain constraints that limit the

possible combinations of entities that may participate in the
corresponding relationship set.
These constraints are determined from the miniworld situation that the
relationships represent.
 Specifies the number of relationship instances an entity can
participate in.
 Specifies lower and uper bounds on the number of relationships
each entity can participate in.
 there are two main types of binary relationships constraints.
 cardinality ratio
 participation

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 Constraints on Binary Relationship Types
32
Cardinality Ratios for Binary Relationships: The cardinality ratio
for a binary relationship specifies the maximum number of
relationship instances that an entity can participate in.
 For example, in the WORKS_FOR binary relationship type,
DEPARTMENT:EMPLOYEE is of cardinality ratio 1:N,meaning
that each department can be related to (that is,employees) any
number of employees, but an employee can be related to (work for)
only one department.
The possible cardinality ratios for binary relationship types are 1:1,
1:N, N:1, and M:N.
The maximum cardinality of a relationship defines the maximum
number of instances of one entity type that can be associated with
instances of another entity type.
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 Types of cardinality ratio/constraints
relationships
33

One-to-one relationship: If the relationship between A and B

satisfies the one-to-one mapping constraint from A to B, then:
an entity in A is related to at most one entity in B,
an entity in B is related to at most one entity in A
E.g. Each passenger has his own Ticket

 One -2-Many relationship: An entity in X is associated with any

number(zero or more) of entities in Y. But an entity in Y can associate with
at most one entity in X
 E.g. A department contains many employees who work under.

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 Types of cardinality ratio/constraints
relationships
34

Many-2-Many relationship: An entity in X is associated with any

number(zero or more) of entities in Y ,and an entity in Y is
associated with any number (zero or more ) of entities in X.
example1: student register in course.

example2: instructor teaches course

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 Constraints on Binary Relationship Types
35

Participation constraint of a relationship

• specifies whether the existence of an entity depends on its
being related to another entity via the relationship type.
• This constraint specifies the minimum number of relationship
instances that each entity can participate in.
There are two distinct participation constraints with this
respect, namely:-
 Total Participation and
 Partial Participation

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 Constraints on Binary Relationship Types
36

 Total participation constraints require the participation of every entity in

the relationship.
It is displayed by a double line.
 partial participation , some entities (not all entities) in the entity set
occurs in the relationship in the relationship set.
 • Partial participation constraints(displayed by a single
line).
 Participation of EMPLOYEE in “manages” relationship with
DEPARTMENT, is partial participation since not all employees are
managers.
 Participation of DEPARTMENT in “Manages” relationship with
EMPLOYEE is total since every department should have a manager.

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 Enhanced entity-relationship (EER)
37

 Enhanced entity-relationship (EER) diagrams are basically

an expanded upon version of ER diagrams.
 EER models are helpful tools for designing databases with
high-level models.
 We use when basic concepts of the ER model are not
sufficient to represent the requirements of the newer, more
complex applications

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 Enhanced entity-relationship (EER)…
38

 The EER model includes all the concepts used in the ER

model:
 Entity types
 Attributes
 Relationship types
 In addition, the EER model includes the following
concepts, which come from the OO model:
 Superclass/subclass relationships
 Attribute inheritance
 Specialization
 Generalization

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 Enhanced entity-relationship (EER)…
39

 Superclass: is an entity type that includes distinct

subgroups with their own unique attributes that should be
represented in the model
 Subclass: entity type that member of the superclass with its
own distinct role. Or it is any subgroup of the Superclass.
 Attribute inheritance: an entity in a subclass may posses
the attributes of the superclass and other attributes specific
to itself
 The relationship between a superclass and any of its
subclasses is called the superclass/subclass relationship.

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 Superclass and Subclass Relationships…
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Fundamentals of Database Systems 04/01/2024

 Superclass and Subclass Relationships>>Example
41

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 Inheritance
42

 Inheritance is an important feature of Generalization and Specialization.

 It allows lower-level entities to inherit the attributes of higher-level entities.
 The details of entities are generally hidden from the user; this process known
as abstraction.

the attributes of a Person

class such as name, age,
and gender can be
inherited by lower-level
entities such as Student
or Teacher.

Fundamentals of Database Systems 04/01/2024

 Generalization and Specialization
43

Generalization
 a number of entities are brought together into one generalized entity
based on their similar characteristics.
 Generalization is taking common attributes from the subclasses and
deriving a common superclass
Specialization
 is the opposite of generalization. In specialization, a group of entities is
divided into sub-groups based on their characteristics.
 Specialization=> Deriving subclasses from a superclass

 They serve as conceptual models for development of Superclass/Subclass

relationships
 Specialization and Generalization are inverses of each other

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 Specialization
44

 A specialization is the process of defining a set of sub

classes of a superclass by identifying their distinguishing
attributes.
 The specialization of an entity type allows us to do the
following:
 Define a set of subclasses of an entity type
 Establish additional attributes with subclasses
 Establish additional relationship types between some
subclasses and other entity types or other subclasses.

Fundamentals of Database Systems 04/01/2024

 Specialization>>Example
45

Fundamentals of Database Systems 04/01/2024

 Specialization>>Example…
46

Entities Before Specialization

Superclass and Subclass Entities

After Specialization

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 Specialization>>Example…
47

 The following Figure shows an example of some instances

of the specialization of the superclass EMPLOYEE into the
set of subclasses {SECRETARY, ENGINEER,
TECHNICIAN}

Fundamentals of Database Systems 04/01/2024

Cont… Chapter-Four
48

Thank you
?

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