CHAPTER 4

Biomechanics
What will you learn today?

Why is it easier to perform a

pull up when the arm is bent?

Why do you get stronger

before you get bigger?
What is Biomechanics?
⦿ A field of study that applies mechanical principles to understand the
function of living organisms.

Functional Anatomy
⦿ is the study of how body systems cooperate to perform certain tasks.
BIOMECHANICS TERMINOLOGY
⦿ Axis of rotation: Pivot point for angular motion
◼ Fulcrum

⦿ Movement
◼ Linear motion
◼ Linear – “body” moves in a straight line

◼ Curvilinear - body moves along a curved

path

◼ Angular motion
Body rotates about an axis of rotation

◼ Many human movements combine linear and

angular motion
3 ANATOMICAL PLANES

⦿ Frontal plane: separates the

front (anterior) and back
(posterior) of the body.
⦿ Sagittal plane: separates the
left and right sides of the body.
⦿ Transverse plane: separates
the upper (superior) and lower
(inferior) halves of the body.
What Movements Occur in
the Sagittal Plane?
● Flexion
● Extension
● Hyperextension
● Dorsiflexion
● Plantar Flexion
What Movements Occur in
the Frontal Plane?
● Abduction & Adduction
● Lateral Flexion
● Elevation & Depression
● Inversion & Eversion
● Radial & Ulnar Deviation
What Movements Occur in
the Transverse Plane?
● Left & Right Rotation
● Medial & Lateral Rotation
● Supination & Pronation
● Horizontal Abduction &
Adduction
BIOMECHANICS
⦿ Kinematics
◼ Study of movement from a descriptive perspective without
regard to the underlying forces

◼ Assessment involves the spatial and timing characteristics of

movement using 5 primary variables
1. Timing (temporal) measures
⚫ Example: an athlete took 0.8 seconds to lift a barbell.
2. Position or location
3. Displacement
4. Velocity
5. Acceleration
◉ Change in velocity per unit time

⦿ Kinetics
◼ Movement assessment with respect to the forces
FORCE
⦿ A mechanical action or effect ⦿Force-related factors:
applied to a body that tends to ● Magnitude (how much force is
produce acceleration. produced/applied)

⦿ Measured in Newtons ● Location (where on a body/structure the

force is applied)
(1lb = 4.45N)
● Direction (where the force is directed)
1. Internal forces
● Duration (how long a force is applied during
◼ Muscles, tendons, ligaments a single force application)

● Frequency (how many times the force is

2. External forces applied in a given time period)
◼ Gravity, friction, air resistance
● Variability (if the magnitude of force is
constant or changing over time)

● Rate (how quickly the force is produced or

applied)
 NEWTON’S LAWS
Mechanical analysis of human movement is based mostly on Newton's
laws.

1. A body at rest (or in motion) tends to stay at rest (or in motion) unless
acted upon by an external force;
Jumper

2. A net force acting on a body produces an acceleration proportional to

the force and inverse of its mass (F = m x a);
Lifting task

3. For every action there is an

equal and opposite reaction.
Runner
TORQUE
⦿ AKA: Moment of force (Moment)

⦿ Definition: the effect of a force that tends to cause rotation (or

twisting) about an axis

⦿T = F x d
d = the “moment arm” or the perpendicular distance from the
fulcrum to the line of force action.

⦿ Measured in newton-meter (N•m)

Put simple: The further away the resistance (e.g: dumbbells) are
from the axis, the higher the torque.
Why is it important for training?
Why is it important for training?
Why is it important for training?
Reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDnthPjV9k4
Moment Arm
 LEVERS
A rigid structure fixed at a single point (fulcrum or axis), to which 2 forces are
applied

⦿ Applied force (FA; effort force): Force produced by active muscle

⦿ Resistance force (FR; load): Force produced by an external resistance

⦿ Mechanical advantage (MA): Ratio FR:FA -> Key concept in how our body is
built
◼ If MA = 1 the moment arms of FR and FA are equal;
◼ If MA < 1 the FR is at an advantage and FA will need to be greater to
overcome the resistance
◼ If MA > 1 the FA is at an advantage

Lever systems in the human body are ranked:

Third class > First class > Second class
First class
◼ Lever which the applied and resistance forces act on opposite sides
of the fulcrum

◼ Fulcrum is located between the two forces

Fulcrum
Second Class
Lever which the applied and
resistance forces act on the same
side of the fulcrum

◼ Resistance force is between fulcrum and

applied force

◼ VERY rarely found in the

body

◼ Applied force always

has the mechanical
advantage
Third Class
Same as second class…except

◼ Applied force is between the

fulcrum and resistance force

◼ Resistance force always has the

mechanical advantage

◼ The human body’s dominant

lever system!!!
WORK AND POWER
⦿ Work (Joule [J])
◼ Product of force and the distance
through which an object moves
W=Fxd

◼ VERY difficult to calculate

◼ Free-weight exercises, vertical displacement is the difference between the highest and lowest
point of the bar

⦿ Power (Watts [w])

◼ The rate at which work is being performed
P = W/t

◼ Can also be considered a product of force and velocity

P=Fxv

Therefore, in order to train for POWER, exercises must be done that require high forces at a high
velocity
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
⦿ The amount of work being performed with the use of a certain
amount of energy
◼ Mechanical output : metabolic inpuT

⦿ Typical movement inefficiency

1. Muscular co-activation 4. Isometric actions
Antagonist muscle action works against agonist No displacement, therefore, no mechanical
muscle action on the opposite side of a joint work is produced

2. Jerky movements 5. Excessive movements of the center of

Alternating changes of direction requiring metabolic
energy to accelerate and decelerate limb segments
3. Extraneous movements
Excessive arm movements during running above
and beyond those needed for balance
gravity
Metabolic energy required to raise and lower
the body’s center of gravity beyond that
minimally required for a given task
MUSCLE
⦿ Muscle has 4 distinguishing characteristics:
1. Excitability
o Ability to respond to a stimulus

2. Contractility
o Ability to generate a pulling force (tension)

3. Extensibility
o Ability to lengthen or stretch

4. Elasticity
o Ability to return to its original length and shape when force is
removed
 MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE
● Pennation angles
○ Angle at which the muscle fibers are offset from the line of pull ; AKA
Line between origin and insertion of muscle

■ Unipennate
Single set of fibers, all with same line of pull

■ Bipennate
Two sets of fibers with different angles

■ Multipennate
Many sets of fibers acting at a variety of angles

● Increasing pennation increases the amount of muscle fibers that can be

packed into a given volume
 MUSCLE ACTIONS
1. Concentric – muscle shortens because the contractile force (force
you produce with your muscle) is greater than the resistive force (the
weight you are lifting)
Example: upward phase of a biceps curl

2. Eccentric – muscle lengthens because contractile force is less than

resistive force
Example: Quadriceps during the down phase of a squat

3. Isometric – the muscle length does not change

because the contractile force is equal to the
resistive force
Example: pushing against a wall
LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP
Force produced by the musculotendinous unit is determined by the muscle length
LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP

If sarcomeres are too short

◼ There is complete overlap
between the actin filaments
◼ Myosin filaments are pressured
against the Z-lines
◼ Diminished capacity for myosin
binding
◼ Note: All factors result in
reduced force production

As sarcomere lengthens
◼ Reaches range of optimal
filament
overlap resulting in…
◼ Maximum force production
As sarcomere lengthens further
◼ Actin-filament overlap
decreases
◼ Force production drops
 FORCE-VELOCITY CURVE
⦿Maximal force the muscle can produce at the given velocity
when the muscle is maximally activated

◼ Faster muscle velocities are

associated with lower force
production

⦿Eccentric has highest force

production
FORCE-VELOCITY CURVE
❖ Simple application:
○ Perform a biceps curl without resistance
The concentric action (elbow flexion) occurs rapidly with little force

○ When additional resistance is applied

The concentric action decreases as greater forces are required

○ When maximal (near-max) resistance is applied

○ The concentric action becomes isometric in nature
○ No displacement of resistance

○ When resistance is above maximal levels

○ The concentric action becomes eccentric in nature as the
individual can only control elbow extension at this time
 NEUROMUSCULAR ASPECTS
⦿Increasing force production:
◼ Muscle recruitment
1. Increasing firing frequency
2. Increasing number of motor units
3. Recruiting larger motor units
4. Recruit the agonists and inhibit the antagonists

**Initial strength gains in

untrained individuals are due
to neuromuscular
adaptations…!**
NEUROMUSCULAR ASPECTS