Topic :

Subject: PHYSICS
Term: 2ND TERM
Session : 2022/2023
School: CHRISLAND
Class : YEAR ELEVEN
Educator :

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 TopicTABLE
: OF CONTENT 2ND TERM
WEEK 1: WAVES WEEK 2: LIGHT WAVES

WEEK 3: REFLECTION OF LIGHT WEEK 4: REFRACTION OF LIGHT

WEEK 5: REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES WEEK 6: MID-TERM BREAK

WEEK 7: DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT WEEK 8: SOUND WAVES

WEEK 9: APPLICATION OF LIGHT AND SOUND WAVES WEEK 10 REVISION AND EXAMINATION:

WEEK 11: MARKING WEEK 12: COMPILATION

WEEK 13: VACATION

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 ......:
T2 WK 1 Topic : WAVES. 1 of ……

LEARNING OBJECTIVES.
describe longitudinal and transverse
waves in ropes, springs and water Point Concepts of Waves
where appropriate
state the meaning of amplitude,
frequency, wavelength and period of a
wave Point : classification of waves
recall that waves transfer energy and
information without transferring
matter
recall and use the relationship: Point : Properties of waves
wave speed = frequency × wavelength
v=f×λ
use the relationship:
frequency = 1 / time period f = 1 / T
use the above relationships in Point : wave equation.
different contexts including sound
waves and electromagnetic waves

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 Topic :
Waves
Properties of Waves
describe longitudinal and transverse waves in ropes, springs and water where appropriate
state the meaning of amplitude, frequency, wavelength and period of a wave
recall that waves transfer energy and information without transferring matter
recall and use the relationship:
wave speed = frequency × wavelength v = f × λ
use the relationship:
frequency = 1 / time period f = 1 / T
use the above relationships in different contexts including sound waves and electromagnetic
waves

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 Topic :
Waves
A wave is a means of transferring energy and information
from one point to another without there being any transfer
of matter between the two points.

Waves are not only found on water, sound travels

as waves, so does light and heat. Waves can also
travel along stretched springs and through pipes.
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WAVE MOTION
A wave motion is a process of transferring a
disturbance, in form of kinetic energy, from one point
to another in a medium without any transfer of
particles of the medium.

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Classification Of Waves
There are two classes of waves depending on medium
of propagation ;
Mechanical waves

•Electromagnetic waves.

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Mechanical Waves

•Mechanical waves are those waves that require a

material medium for their propagation.

•Examples include water waves, sound waves, waves on

a rope or string, etc.

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Electromagnetic Waves

•Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not require

a material medium for propagation.

•Examples include light waves, radio waves, X-rays,

gamma rays, etc.

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TYPES OF WAVES
•There are two types of waves depending on the
direction of motion and vibration.

•These are;
• Transverse waves

•Longitudinal waves.

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 Topic : Transverse Waves
• Travel in a direction perpendicular to the direction of vibration.
• Displacement of the particles is at right angles to the direction
of travel of wave motion.
• Example: Transverse waves created by vertical swinging of a
rope fixed at one end. Made up of crests and troughs.
• Other Examples: rope waves, water waves, light waves and
radio waves, infra red waves, etc.

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 Topic : Longitudinal Waves
• Travel in a direction parallel to the direction of vibration.
• Displacement of the particles is in line with or parallel to the direction of travel
of wave motion.
• Example: Longitudinal waves created by horizontal motion of a spring fixed at
one end. Made up of compressions and rarefactions.
• Example: sound waves.

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 Topic : Properties of Wave Motion

• Crests (high points) and troughs (low points)

of transverse waves
• Amplitude A: maximum displacement from
rest position in either direction. SI unit:
metres(m)

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 TopicProperties
: of Wave Motion
• Phase: Two points in phase move in the same
direction with same speed and have same
displacement from rest position (See red dot).

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 TopicProperties
: of Wave Motion
• Wavelength: shortest distance between any two
point on a wave that is in phase. SI unit: metres
(m)

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 TopicProperties
: of Wave Motion
• Frequency, f: number of complete waves produced per
second. SI unit: hertz (Hz)
• Period, T: time taken to produce one complete wave. SI
unit: second (s)

T = 1/f

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 TopicProperties
: of Wave Motion
• Wavefront: imaginary line on a wave that joins all
points which have the same phase of vibration.

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 Topic : Wave Equation
• Wave speed, v: distance travelled by a wave in
one second. SI unit: m/s.
Speed = distance / time.
V =  / T.
But f = 1 / T.

v=f

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 Topic :
Wave Equation(WASSCE & NECO)
•

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 Topic :
CALCULATIONS

• EX 11, NUMBER 22C, PAGE 267

• EXAMPLE 11.4, PAGE 256.

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Topic : The Ripple Tank
Uses
1. Generating water waves
2. All the basic properties of waves,
including reflection, refraction,
interference and diffraction, can
be demonstrated.

Structure
1. Shallow glass-bottomed tray
2. Light source (lamp) above tray
3. White screen below tray: capture
image of shadows formed as water
waves traverse the tray
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TopicWave
: Pattern in Ripple Tank

Reflection of waves
1. No change in speed or wavelength
2. Angle of incidence = angle of
reflection
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 Topic :
PROPERTIES OF WAVES
• Reflection

• Refraction

• Diffraction

• Interference

• Polarization
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 Topic :
reflection
• Reflection is the change in direction of a
wavefront at an interface between two
different media so that the wavefront returns
into the medium from which it originated.
• The speed and wavelength of the waves
remain unchanged as long as they remain in
the same medium after reflection.
•

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 Topic :
refraction
• Refraction is the change in direction of a wave
due to a change in its speed. This is most
commonly observed when a wave passes from
one medium to another at any angle other
than 90° or 0°.

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Diffraction.
• Diffraction is the bending of waves around
corners or obstacles.

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Experiment of diffraction
• You can show diffraction effects with water waves in
a ripple tank, microwaves, sound and even light. The
patterns for some water wave diffraction are shown
in the diagrams.
• They show that:
• (a) the diffraction effects are greater for long
wavelength
• (b) the diffraction effects are greater for small holes

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 Topic :
Diffraction becomes more
significant when the size of
the gap or obstacle is
reduced compared with
the wavelength of the
wave.

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 Topic :
Diffraction
The waves bend round the sides of an obstacle, or
spread out as they pass through a gap. The effect is
called diffraction.

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 Topic :
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
•Interference results from the superposition of two or
more wave-trains.
•Constructive interference occurs when the two waves
match each other crest-for-crest and trough-for-
trough, i.e. when they are in phase with each other.
•In this case the amplitude of the resulting wave is
larger than that of either component wave.

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INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
•Destructive interference occurs when the two wave-
trains are out of phase e.g. with the crest of one
coinciding with the trough of the other.
•This results in a reduced or zero amplitude for the
resulting wave.

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 Topic : POLARIZATION OF WAVES

• A wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is said to be unpolarized. Light
emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom, or by a candle flame is
unpolarized light.
• In general, it is helpful to picture unpolarized light as a wave that has an
average of half its vibrations in a horizontal plane and half of its vibrations in a
vertical plane.
• It is possible to transform unpolarized light into polarized light. Polarized light
waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane. The
process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as
polarization. There are a variety of methods of polarizing light.
• Polarization by transmission
• Polarization by reflection
• Polarization by refraction
• Polarization by scattering.
•
•

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Topic :

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Uses of Polaroids

• Polaroids are used in the laboratory to produce and analyse plane

polarised light.
• Polaroids are widely used as polarising sun glasses.
• They are used to eliminate the head light glare in motor cars.
• They are used to improve colour contrasts in old oil paintings.
• polaroid films are used to produce three-dimensonal moving
pictures.
• They are used as glass windows in trains and aeroplanes to control
the intensity of light.

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Uses of polaroids
• Aerial pictures may be taken from slightly
different angles and when viewed through
polaroids give a better perception of depth.
• In calculators and watches, letters and
numbers are formed by liquid crystal
display(LCD) through polarisation of light.
• Polarisation is also used to study size and
shape of molecules.

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 Topic :
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
A wave transfers _______
energy without the movement of _______
matter
from one place to another.
In a __________
transverse wave the particle ____________
vibrations are
perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
Frequency is equal to the number of waves produced by a
source in one _________.
second Time period is equal to the
___________
reciprocal of the frequency.
The speed of a wave in m/s is equal to its __________
wavelength in
metres multiplied by its __________
frequency in hertz.

WORD SELECTION:
frequency transverse reciprocal energy
second vibrations wavelength matter

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 Topic :
Properties of Waves
1. (a) What is a wave? (b) Explain the difference between a transverse and
longitudinal wave
2. Define what is meant by (a) amplitude; (b) wavelength; (c) frequency and
(d) time period.
3. (a) State the wave equation. (b) Calculate the wavelength of a radio wave
of frequency 10MHz, speed 300 000km/s.
4. (a) What is wave diffraction? (b) Draw diagrams showing how diffraction
is affected by the wavelength of a wave.

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Topic : LIGHT WAVES
Objectives:- Students should be able
to:
1.list the sources of light
2. State the meaning of rectilinear
propagation of light
3. List evidences in support of
rectilinear propagation of light

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 Topic :
Sources of light.
• Light is a form of energy called luminous
energy. This energy causes a sensation of
vision, enabling us to see. There are various
sources of light, for example;
• Sun, stars, candle, torch, electric lamp e.t.c.

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Transmission of light.
• Light is an electromagnetic wave. It can pass
through a vacuum and through a material
medium. If light shines on a body, part of the
light is transmitted through the body, the rest
is reflected. The amount of light passing
through a body depends on the nature of the
body.

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 Topic :
Transparent, translucent and opaque
objects.
• If a large amount of light passes through the
body, the body is said to be transparent.
• If little amount of light passes through the
body, it is said to be translucent. E.g frosted
glass and tissue paper.
• If the object does not allow light to pass
through it at all, it is said to be opaque.

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Rays and beam
• Ray. A ray is the direction or path along which light
energy flows.
• Beam. A beam is a collection of rays. There are three
types of beams;
• Parallel beam is one in which the light rays are
parallel to one another.
• Convergent beam is one in which the rays converge
to meet at a point.
• Divergent beam is one in which the light rays all
come from a point and spread out from the source.

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 Topic :
Rectilinear propagation of light.
• The phenomenon of light travelling in straight
lines is known as rectilinear propagation of
light.

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 Topic :
An experiment to show that light travels in
straight lines.
• We can prove that light travels in straight lines
by placing three cardboard screen A,B and C
with holes in their centres arranged in straight
line.
• Light from a candle or torch is placed behind
the first screen,A. We look through the third
screen,C, we see light from the lamp. If either
screen is shifted the light is cut off.

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Evidences of the rectilinear propagation of
light.
The following effects depends on the fact that light travels in straight
lines;

1. Formation of shadows.

2. Eclipses.
3. Image formation by reflection ( like image in mirror )
4. Image formation by refraction ( like image in water )
5. pin hole camera image formation
6. periscope working ( reflection phenomena )
7. Spectrum formation by prism by dispersion
8. Rainbow phenomena is also explained by rectilinear propagation
9. Blue colour of sky due to scattering is also explained by rectilinear propagation.
10. Twinkling of stars e.t.c

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 Topic :
Shadows
 When a beam of light shines on an opaque
object the light rays which reach the object
are stopped while those rays which pass by
the edges continue on their path. A region
without light, called a shadow, forms behind
the object. The shape of the shadow
depends on the position of the light and on
where the shadow falls.
 The size and intensity of the shadow
depends on the size and distance between
the light source and the object.
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 Topic :
Formation of shadow by a point source.

shadow
Point source

screen

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 Topic :
Shadows of Extended Source.
penumbra

Extended source

umbra

• umbra
The Theis the
umbra is the
region where region
no light where
reaches the screen. no light
reaches the screen.
• The penumbra is the outer area where only part of the light reaches
the screen.

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 Topic :
An eclipse of the Sun
• When the Moon stops the light from the Sun reaching the
Earth
• We call it an eclipse of the sun.
• During an eclipse, it goes dark in the middle of the day.
• An eclipse of the Sun is rare

Sun Moon Earth

Moon

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An Eclipse of the Moon

The Earth sometimes blocks out the sunlight from reaching the
Moon.
Then we cannot see the Moon
This is an eclipse of the Moon.

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Pinhole camera.
The pinhole camera
consist of a light- tight
box, one end of which
has a small hole made
with a pin or needle
point. The opposite end
has a screen made of
tracing paper.

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 Topic :
WEEK 3: REFLECTION
OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to :
1. State the laws of reflection
2. State the properties of the images formed by a plane mirror
3. Differentiate between real and virtual image
4. State the uses of plane mirrors

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 Topic :
Laws of Reflection
incident ray
1. The angle of incidence (i) is
equal to the angle of angle of
incidence, i
reflection (r) normal

angle of
Note: Both angles are measured reflection, r mirror
with respect to the ‘normal’. This is
a construction line that is reflected ray
perpendicular to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray,
and the normal, at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.

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 The :image formed by a plane mirror
Topic

object image

construction lines
normals (virtual light rays)

plane The image produced by the plane

mirror mirror is:
1. The same size as the object
2. The same distance behind the
mirror as the object is in front
3. Upright (the same way up as the
object)
4. Back-to-front compared with the
object (lateral inversion)
5. Virtual

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Real and virtual images
REAL images are formed where light rays cross after
reflection by a mirror or refraction by a lens.

Real images can be cast onto a screen.

Example: A projector image

VIRTUAL images are formed where light rays only appear

to come from.

A virtual image cannot be cast onto a screen.

Example: The image formed by a plane mirror

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 Topic :
Uses of plane mirrors.
1. Periscope
2. Kaleidoscope
3. For shaving
4. Sextant
5. Driving.
6. Mirror galvanometer.

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 Topic :
Effect of mirror rotation on a reflected ray.

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 Topic :
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
The law of reflection states that the angle of __________
reflection is
always _______
equal to the angle of incidence.

Both angles are measured relative to the _________,

normal a line
that is at _______
ninety degrees to the reflecting surface at the
point of reflection.
A plane mirror forms a _______
virtual image which is unlike a
_____
real image in that it cannot be cast onto a screen. The
image in a plane mirror is also the same ______
size and the same
way up as the object.
WORD SELECTION:
normal virtual size reflection real equal ninety

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Reflection

1. Explain how convex and concave mirrors differ from plane mirrors.
2. state what is meant by (a) the law of reflection and (b) the
‘normal’ line.
3. explain what is meant by a ‘virtual’ image.
4. What is a real image? Give two examples.

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Topic Reflection
: by a Concave mirror

A concave mirror is like the inside of a spoon.

concave
principal mirror
focus
F
principal axis O
C
centre
centre of
of the
curvature
mirror

focal length, f

radius of curvature, r

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 Topic :
Mirror definitions
The principal axis is a construction line that is perpendicular to and
passes through the centre of the mirror, O.

The principal focus, F is the point through which all rays travelling parallel
to the principal axis before reflection pass through or appear to come
from after reflection.

The focal length, f is the distance from the centre of the mirror, O to the
principal focus, F.

The centre of curvature, C is the centre of the circle of which the surface
of the mirror is a part.

The radius of curvature, r is the distance along the principal axis between
the centre of the mirror, O and the centre of curvature and equal to
TWICE the focal length, f of the mirror.

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 Topic :
Reflection by a Convex mirror
A convex mirror is like the outside of a spoon.
convex
mirror
principal
focus
principal axis O C
F

centre of
curvature

focal length, f

radius of curvature, r

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Standard rays – concave mirror
(a) Rays incident parallel to the principal axis pass through
the principal focus after reflection.
concave
mirror

F
principal axis

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 Topic :
(b) Rays passing through the centre of curvature before
reflection are reflected back along their initial path.

centre of
curvature

F
principal axis

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(c) Rays striking the centre of the mirror are reflected as if
the mirror was flat.

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Topic : Concave mirror images
1. Object more than the radius of curvature away from the mirror.

object
C image F O

Use: Satellite receiver (with microwaves)

The image formed is:
Smaller than the object (diminished)
Between F and C
Inverted (upside down)
Real
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 Topic :
2. Object between F and C

object

C F O

image

Use: Satellite transmitter (with microwaves)

The image formed is:
Larger than the object (magnified)
Beyond C
Inverted
Real

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 Topic :
3. Object nearer than the principal focus

object
image
C

observer

Use: Makeup and shaving mirrors

The image formed is:
Larger than the object
On the other side of the mirror from the object
Upright
Virtual

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Standard rays – convex mirror
(a) Rays incident parallel to the principal axis appear to come
from the principal focus after reflection.
convex
mirror

principal F
axis

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 Topic :
(b) Rays heading for the centre of curvature before reflection
are reflected back along their initial paths.

convex
mirror

principal axis F C

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 Topic :
(c) Rays striking the centre of the mirror are reflected as if
the mirror was flat.

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 Topic : Convex mirror images
Objects at all distances from a convex mirror

object

F C
image

observer

Use: Security mirrors

The image formed is:
Smaller than the object
On the other side of the
mirror from the object
Upright Convex mirrors give
Virtual a wide field of view

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 Topic :
Magnification
magnification = image height
object height
Question:
Calculate the magnification if a mirror produces an
image of 40cm from an 8cm sized object.
magnification = image height / object height
= 40cm / 8cm
magnification = 5 x

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 Topic :
Mirror formula
•

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Sign convention.
• When the mirror formula is in use in solving
practical problems, it is necessary to add a
plus or minus sign to each of the distances
according to a sign rule or convention. Two
commonly used sign conventions are given
below;
• 1. Real is positive
• 2. new cartesian convention.
• Note that we will adhere to only real is
positive in all our calculations.
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 Topic :
Complete:
Answers
object height image height magnification

3 cm 24 cm 8x
15 cm 45 cm 3x

20 cm 5 cm 0.25 x

300 mm 0.10 m 3x

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Topic :
Refraction

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 Topic : REFRACTION

OBJECTIVES: The students should be able to:

1. define refraction
2. state the laws of refraction
3. define refractive index
4. understand refraction through triangular prism
5. explain the term total internal reflection
6. solve relevant problems

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 Topic :
Refraction occurs when a wave
changes speed as it passes
from one medium to another.
This speed change usually
causes the wave to change
direction.
Water waves slow down as they
pass over from a deeper to a
shallower region.
Light slows down as it passes
from air into glass, perspex or
water.

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 Topic :
Laws of refraction
•

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 Topic : Refractive index.
• This is a constant used to express the nature
of medium through which light ray is
propagated. Refractive index, n is given by
• Refractive index, n =
• n=
• n=
• n=

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 Topic :
Refraction of light at a plane surface
(a) Less to more optical dense transition (e.g. air to glass)

Light bends TOWARDS the normal.

The angle of refraction is LESS than the angle of incidence.

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(b) More to less optical dense transition (e.g. water to air)

Light bends AWAY FROM the normal.

The angle of refraction is GREATER than the angle of incidence.

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Refraction through triangular prism.

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• The angle of incidence = I

• Angle of refraction =r
• Angle of emergence = e
• Angle of deviation = D
• Angle of prism = A
• When light passes symmetrically through a
triangular prism, the angle of deviation D,
becomes angle of minimum deviation, Dm
•
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 Topic :

• n = sin()
• sin ()
• Where n = refractive index of prism.
• Examples Essential physics pages 237 – 237.

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Topic : Refraction experiment
Typical results:
angle of angle of deviation / °
incidence / ° refraction / °
0 0 0
15 10 5
30 19 11
45 28 17
60 35 25
75 40 35

No deviation occurs when the angle of incidence is zero.

Increasing the angle of incidence increases the deviation.

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 Topic :
Why a pool appears shallow

normals
observer

AIR
WATER

image

object at the
bottom of a pool

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 Topic :
Question 1
Calculate the refractive index when light passes from
air to glass if the angle of incidence is 30° and the angle
of refraction 19º.
n = sin i / sin r
= sin (30º) / sin (19º)
= 0.500 / 0.326
refractive index , n = 1.53

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 Topic :
Total internal reflection
critical angle
Total internal reflection occurs
when:

1. Light is incident on a
boundary between optically
GLASS
more to less dense substance
(for example glass to air). AIR

NORMAL
2. The angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle, Angle
Angle
Angle
of of
incidence
of
incidence
incidence
greater
equal
lessthan
to
c for the interface. thethe
critical
than
critical
theangle:
critical
angle: angle:
NORefraction
Refraction
Refraction atand
and
90º and
TOTAL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
INTERNAL
reflection
reflection
REFLECTION

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Critical angle equation
critical angle
The critical angle is the angle of
incidence in the denser medium
that results in an angle of
refraction of 90º

n = 1 GLASS
sin c
AIR
where:
NORMAL angle of
n is the refractive index of the
denser medium (glass in the refraction
example opposite). = 90º
c is the critical angle.

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Question 1
Calculate the critical angle of glass to air if the
refractive index of glass is 1.5
n = 1 / sin c
= 1.0 / 1.5
= 0.67
critical angle for glass, c = 42°

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Uses of total internal reflection
1. Prismatic periscope

Glass and perspex both have critical angles

of about 42º.

In each prism the light strikes the glass-air

interface at an incidence angle of 45º

Total internal reflection therefore occurs and

the light ray is deviated by 90º in each prism.

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2. Reflectors
The reflector is made up of many
small perspex prisms arranged so
that light undergoes total internal
reflection twice.

The overall result is that the light is

returned in the direction from
which it originally came.

The reflector will be seen to be lit

up from the point of view of the
light source for example the driver
of a car with its headlights on.
A bicycle rear reflector
contains many tiny red
perspex prisms

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3. Optical fibres

Optical fibre consists of two

concentric layers of different types
of glass, core and cladding.
core cladding
Light entering the inner core
always strikes the boundary of the
two glasses at an angle that is
greater than the critical angle.

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 Topic Optical
: fibre communication
Optical fibres can be used to transmit
information using visible light or infra-red
radiation. The light cannot escape from the
fibre, it is continually reflected internally by the
fibre.

Compared with microwaves and radio waves

optical fibres:
 can carry far more information due to the
higher frequency of light and infra-red.
 are more secure because the signals stay within
the fibres.

The fastest broadband uses optical fibres.

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 Topic : The Endoscope
The medical endoscope contains two bundles of fibres. One set
of fibres transmits light into a body cavity and the other is used
to return an image for observation.

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 Topic : REFFRACTION THROUGH LENSES
OBJECTIVES: The students should be
able to:
1. state the types of lenses
2. draw ray diagrams
3. state the nature and position of the
image formed by both concave and
convex lenses
4. determination of focal length using
both approximate and experimental
methods
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Refraction through Lenses
• There are two main types of lenses:
• convex lenses—these curve outwards and are
fatter in the middle
• concave lenses—these curve inwards (a little
like a cave) and are thinner in the middle.

Convex lenses Concave Lenses

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Lenses – An application of refraction

A converging lens (Convex) A diverging lens (concave) takes

takes light rays and bring light rays and spreads them
them to a point. outward.
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Movement of Light through Lenses
CONVEX LENS
• In a convex lens, an incoming ray parallel to the
principal axis is refracted through the principal
focus (F).

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Concave Lens
• In a concave lens, an incoming ray parallel to
the principal axis is refracted so that it appears
to come from the principal focus (F).

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Drawing ray diagrams

• A ray diagram is the best way to understand what type of

image is formed by a lens, and whether the image is magnified
or inverted.
• These three rays follow the rules for how light rays are bent by
the lens:
1. A light ray passing through the center of the lens is
not deflected at all (A).
2. A light ray parallel to the axis passes through the far
focal point (B).
3. A light ray passing through the near focal point
emerges parallel to the axis (C).
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Image type and Location
• Convex lenses produce two different types of
images, depending on where the object is
located.
• If the object is at a distance greater than the
focal length of the lens, a real image is
formed.
• A real image can be projected onto a screen

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• If the object is at a distance less than the focal

length of the lens, a virtual image is formed.
• This image can’t be projected onto a screen.

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Concave Lenses
• Concave lenses produce only virtual images.

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Finding the focal length
• Rays coming into a lens from a distant object are
almost parallel and form an image very close to
the focus.
• We can then measure the distance from lens to
image to determine the focal length of the lens.

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Optical instruments
• Telescopes
• Telescopes make small, far objects appear larger.
• Two lenses are used.
• The objective lens produces a real, inverted image
just inside the focus of a second lens, called the
eyepiece lens. The image produced by the first lens
now acts as the object for the second lens.

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• Because the first image is inside the focus of

the second lens, the second image (the one
seen by the telescope user) is virtual and
enlarged compared to the first one

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• The thinner the first lens (objective lens), the

larger the first image. But thin lenses have
longer focal lengths—this is why telescopes
are long instruments

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APPLICATION OF LENSES

1. Microscopes.
2. Binoculars.
3. Camera
4. Film projector.
5. The human eye e.t.c

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Assignment .
• Write short notes on;
• 1. astronomical telescope.
• 2. compound microscope
• 3. when do we say that a telescope is in
normal adjustment?

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WEEK 6:-DISPERSION OF LIGHT
• OBJECTIVES:- students should be able to
• 1. define dispersion of white light
• 2.mention components of spectrum of white
light
• 3. explain formation of pure spectrum
• 4. explain mixture of colours of light

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Definition of Dispersion
Dispersion is the separation of white light into a
spectrum by the process of refraction.
The colours of light formed on a screen is called a
SPECTRUM.
The spectrum formed consists of
red,orange,yellow,green,blue,indigo and violet
The colours appear in order of increasing frequency and
decreasing wavelength.

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Dispersion with a prism

•Violet is deviated the most

•Red is deviated the least

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The cause of dispersion
• Dispersion occurs because different colours of light
travel at slightly different speeds through
transparent substances.
• In glass, perspex and water red travels quickest,
violet slowest.

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The rainbow

An example of dispersion
caused by water

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Formation of a pure spectrum.
• A prism alone produces what is called impure
spectrum in which different colours overlap.
• The experimental requirements for producing
pure spectrum, which is a spectrum in which
the colours are separated from each other
include
• (i) a narrow slit as a source of light; this
produces a series of narrow coloured images
which minimises overlapping of colours

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• (ii) a converging lens placed with the slit at its
focus so that a beam of parallel light is
produced.
• (iii) a 600 prism for dispersion of the parallel
beam.
• (iv). A second lens for collecting the parallel
beams of different colours, but this is not
essential.
• (v). A screen at the focus of the second lens on
which the pure spectrum can be projected.
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Continous spectrum
• The specta produced by solids and liquids when
they are glowing are called continous spectra
and they contain all colours. Eg. White light
from the sun.
• Line Spectrum.
• When light produced by an incadescent vapour
is passed through a prism a particular spectrum
containing a distinct bright lines is obtained.
The spectrum produced is called line spectrum.
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MIXTURE OF COLOURED LIGHTS.
Red, green and blue are called primary colour of
light because it is not possible to produce them
by mixing other colours.
When the three primary colours are mixed,white
light is produced.
Red + Green + Blue = white
Light Light Light Light
The following three secondary colours are
obtained by mixing any two primary colours.
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Cont.
1.Red light + Green light = Yellow light
2.Blue light + Green light = Cyan light
3.Red light + Blue light = Magenta light
Yellow light, Cyan light and Magenta light are
called secondary colours.
If two coloured lights, a primary and a
secondary, when mixed give white light, they
are called complementary colours.

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Cont.
Yellow light + Blue light = white
Cyan light + Red light = white
Magenta light + Green light = white
These pairs of colours are all called
complementary colours.

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WEEK 8 : SOUND WAVES
• OBJECTIVES:- students must be able to
• 1. define sound waves
• 2. list the possible media through which sound
wave travel
• 3.explain echo
• 4. list the application of echo
• 5.state characteristics of sound wave
• 6. list different types of musical instrument
• 7. sound propagation in open and closed pipes
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PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES.
SOUND:- sound is a form of wave motion which is
conveyed through an elastic medium from a vibrating
body to a listener.
Gases, liquids and solids can all transmit sound waves, but
a vacuum cannot.
Sound travels fastest in solids, faster in liquids and least in
gases (e.g air). Experiments have shown that sound
travels about fifteen times faster in steel(solid, 5000m/s)
than in air (332 m/s) and about four times fater in water
(liquid, 1500m/s) than in air (gas, 332m/s) at 00C

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Reflection of Sound (ECHOES).
ECHO:- An echo is the reflection of sound waves from a
plane surface.
In an auditorium or hall, if the walls and ceiling are made
of hard smooth materials, the sound wave will be
reflected back and forth many times, so that several
echoes will be heard and this makes the hall reverbrate
for a long time. This leads to bad listening conditions.
To minimise echo, the ceiling and walls should be
covered with soft perforated boards to absorb the
reflection quickly.

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APPLICATIONS OF ECHOES

1.Echoes are used to determine the speed of sound in

air.
v = 2x m/s
t where v = speed ; x = distance of
separation ; t = time in second.
2. Echo sounding devices called SONAR is used to
determine the depth of the sea.
x = vt
2
3. Echoes are used in the exploration for gas and oil.
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Cont.
• REVERBERATION :- Reverberation is an effect
experienced or observed in very large halls where
sound takes a very long time to die away due to
multiple reflections from walls, roof and floor of the
hall.
• Excessive reverberation makes music sound to be
indistinct and confused. It is good to have some little
reverberation otherwise the music sound becomes
much weaker and the hall is said to be acoustically
`dead’. Reverberation is reduced by using soft
furnishing and padding the walls of the hall.
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Cont.
• MUSICAL NOTES AND NOISE
• A musical note is a sound of regular frequency while noise is a sound of
irregular frequency. Noise produces an unpleasant mixture of sounds.
• Characteristics of sounds.
• A musical note is characterized by the following: pitch , quality (or
timbre) and loudness.
1. PITCH :- Pitch is the characteristic of a note which enables one to
differentiate a high note from a low note. The pitch of a note is its
position on a musical scale. The pitch of a note depends on the
frequency of the sound wave. The pitch becomes higher as the
frequency increases. A tight string produces a pitched sound when
plucked but a loose string produces a low pitched sound when plucked.

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Cont.
2. QUALITY OR TIMBRE :- The quality of a note is the
characteristic that distinguishes it from another note of
the same pitch and loudness played by another musical
instrument.
For example the quality of the note ‘middle C’ played on a
piano is different from that of the ‘middle C’ played on a
violin or an organ. The quality of a note depends on its
harmonics or overtones.
3. INTENSITY AND LOUDNESS :- The Intensity of sound is
the rate of flow of energy per unit area perpendicular to
the direction of the sound wave.
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Cont.
LOUDNESS is a sensation in the mind of the
individual observer, depending on the
intensity of sound. Intensity depends, among
other factors, on the amplitude of vibration,
the frequency of the sound and the distance
away of the sounding body. Loudness
depends on all these and also on the
characteristics of the individual ear.

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Cont.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Musical instruments are classified as
(1). String instruments e.g sonometer, guitar , piano, violin etc.
The frequency of the sound emitted by string instruments depends
on the equation;
f= 1 T
2l m where T = tension in string measured in
newtons
m = mass per unit length of string
measured in kilogram per metre
l = length of string measured in
metre.
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Cont.
(2). Wind instruments e.g flutes, clarinets, saxophones ,
trumpets, etc.
These instruments produce sound because of vibrating air
columns. The frequency of the note produced depends
mainly on the length of the vibrating air column according
to
f α 1
l
(3). Percussion instruments e.g bells, drums tunning forks
etc.

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