Agricultural-Ecosystem

Agricultural Biology
 Agroecosystem
An agroecosystem is a cultivated ecosystem, generally corresponding to the spatial unit of a farm and
whose ecosystem functions are valued by humans in the form of agricultural goods and services. It is
thus co-produced by nature and humans.

• Agroecosystems are ecosystems composed of both abiotic and biotic elements that interact with
each other and the surrounding environment. Agroecosystem are always integrated in a social,
economic and ecological environment, and are part of flows (energy, watter) and mechanisms
(nutrient cycles, pests and diseases biological control, pollen transfer, etc.). Hence, they are
characterized by a structural and dynamic complexity arising from interactions between socio-
economic processes (interactions between social and economic factors) and ecological ones
(functional links between organisms and their environment) in which hey are embedded.
 Ecosystem
• An ecosystem consists of the plants and animals of an area and all the
things which make-up their surroundings –like soil, water, and air. It can
be a small area such as a pond;a medium-sized area such as forest or a
large-area such as the earth itself.
• It is an geographic area that includes all of the organisms and non-living
parts of their physical environment.
 Ecosystem and it’s Functions
• An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are
different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:
Forest Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem
Tundra Ecosystem
• Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
• A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals
and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of
the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth
and are the major carbon sink.
• A forest ecosystem, similar to any other ecosystem, also comprises of abiotic
and biotic components. Abiotic components refer to inorganic materials like
air, water, and soil. Biotic components include producers, consumers, and
decomposers.
Grassland Ecosystem
• In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs.
Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of
grassland ecosystems.
• Grass controls the grassland ecosystems with few or no trees where there is not
enough for a forest and too much for a desert. Hence, it is also called a transitional
landscape.
• The grassland ecosystem is called the largest biomes on earth and it covers about 10
per cent of the earth’s surface. It is mainly found where rainfall is about 15-75 cm per
year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert.
Tundra Ecosystem
• Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where
rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type
of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.
• Tundra ecosystems are treeless regions found in the Arctic and on the tops of
mountains, where the climate is cold and windy, and rainfall is scant. Tundra lands
are covered with snow for much of the year, but summer brings bursts of
wildflowers.
• Plants and Animals in Tundras-mountain goats, sheep, marmots, and birds live in
mountain—or alpine—tundra and feed on the low-lying plants and insects. Hardy
flora like cushion plants survive in the mountain zones by growing in rock
depressions, where it is warmer and they are sheltered from the wind.
Desert Ecosystem
• Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall
and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.
• Desert ecosystems are dry environments with scarce vegetation, harsh temperatures,
and precipitation of fewer than 10 inches a year. The humidity in the atmosphere is
very low, so the temperatures are not regulated. Deserts can be hot and arid or
extremely cold. One-fifth of the land on the earth’s surface is covered with deserts.
 Aquatic Ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can
be further divided into two types, namely:
• °Freshwater Ecosystem
•
°Marine Ecosystem
•Brackish Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
• The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem
• Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems. They include
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands.[1] They can be contrasted
with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content. Freshwater habitats can
be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients,
and vegetation.
Marine Ecosystem
• The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial
salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater
ecosystem.
• Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters
that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems,
which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface
of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth’s water supply[1][2] and 90%
of habitable space on Earth.[3] Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per
thousand of water.
 Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together
in an ecosystem are:
Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one
trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to
consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
• Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-
soil is the major site for decomposition.
• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in
various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
 Principles of Ecosystem
The fundamental principles of the ecosystem include adaptation and behavior, organizational levels,
biodiversity, and energy flow.
Adaptation and Behavior
The environment is constantly changing. Because of its changes, organisms constantly undergo
adaptation — the process of change to accommodate environmental conditions over a short period of
time.
Organisms are capable of adapting due to their behavior. Behavior is an organism’s response to biotic
and abiotic stimuli.
• Abiotic factors in the environment which include climatic conditions can influence an organism’s
adaptation and behavior. For instance, certain animals undergo hibernation during the winter season.
Organizational Levels
The ecosystem is arranged in various levels. The levels of organization are
organized from smallest to largest.
The first level of organization pertains to an organism, which refers to the
individual species.
• The second level is the population which refers to a group of organisms of the same
species in the same area. For instance, a population of green sea turtles in Palawan is
different from a population of green sea turtles in Zambales. However, they can be
under one population if they are grouped as a population of green sea turtles in the
Philippines.
The third level of organization is the community which involves more than one
species or more than one population. For instance, a live coral houses a community of
multiple aquatic organisms. It is important to note that both population and
community levels only refer to biotic factors.
The fourth level of organization is the ecosystem which involves several communities
combined with abiotic factors. For example, an area in Zambales hosts different
community of populations interacting with several factors in the environment.
• The last and final level is the biosphere which encompasses all ecosystems. The
biosphere is essentially the surface of the Earth.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variability of organisms in an ecosystem. It has three
types—species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecological diversity.
Species diversity refers to the abundance and number of different species in the same
area. For example, there is an abundance of different bird species in a forest.
• Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the genes within a particular species or
within a population. A very good example is the variability of eyecolor in humans.
• Ecological diversity refers to the diversity in an ecosystem, habitat, and natural
community. It shows how different species interact with each other and with their
environment. It is the largest type of biodiversity.
Energy Flow
For an organism to survive, it must be able to acquire energy from either the
environment or another organism.
• The food chain shows the feeding relationships of organisms and depicts the energy
flow in an ecosystem. It starts in the organisms that are able to produce chemical
energy derived from the light energy of sun. They are called producers which are
also known as autotrophs. The organisms that feed on the producers are called the
consumers, also known as heterotrophs. The consumers get their energy from the
producers that they consume.
• Consumers are further divided into herbivores that only eat plants, carnivores that
only eat other animals, omnivores that can consume both plants and animals, and
decomposers that feed on dead organic matter and bring the energy back into the
food web.
• The food web is the sum of food chains and shows multiple pathways of energy flow
in an ecosystem. Just like in the food chain, the energy enters through the producers
or autotrophs.
• Ecosystem Services
• Are the goods and services derived from natural and managed ecosystems which
human welfare depends.
• Because of the global intensification of land use, these services are diclining ,
especially in agricultural ecosystems.
• Ecosystem Services are the direct and indirect contributions ecosystems (known as
natural capital) provide for human wellbeing and quality of life.
• This can be in a practical sense, providing food and water and regulating the climate,
as well as cultural aspects such as reducing stress and anxiety. In fact, the vast
number of services provided by ecosystems can be categorised into more
manageable groups of: provisional; regulating; cultural; and the slightly more
ambiguous, supporting services.
• These services provided by ecosystems lead to benefits received by humans in the
form of security, goods and materials, health and wellbeing.
Provisioning – these are tangible goods that people can harvest from the environment
such as food, wood and fibre, water and fuel.
Regulating – these are regulating services that occur in the ecosystem that lead to
benefits such as climate regulation, flood management, and water filtration.
Cultural – these include ways in which nature impacts people’s health and wellbeing
through recreational and education benefits as well as improving mental health and
building spiritual connections.
• Supporting – ecosystems could not function without supporting services, such as the
nutrient cycle, soil formation and habitat provision for biodiversity, forming the basis
for the other three types of services.
What are Ecosystem Goods and Services?
Ecosystems are communities formed by the interaction of living (plants, animals, and
microorganisms) and non-living creatures (air, water, mineral soil).
The ecosystems of the Earth offer a diverse range of benefits known as “ecosystem
goods and services” to humanity.
Food (meat, fish, vegetables, etc.), water, fuels, and timber are among the goods
produced by ecosystems.
• Ecosystem services include water supply and air purification, natural waste
recycling, soil formation, pollination, and the regulatory mechanisms that nature
uses to control climatic conditions and populations of animals, insects, and other
organisms when left to its own devices.
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