STRUCTURED CABLING SYSTEM

TIA/EIA-568B
Structured cabling divides
the entire infrastructure
into manageable blocks
and then attempts to
integrate these blocks to
produce high-
performance networks.
 TIA/EIA
- This standards address commercial building
cabling for telecom products and services.
- TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)
- EIA (Electronics Industry Alliance)
 ADVANTAGES
• Consistency – has same cabling systems for data, voice and
video.
• Support for multi-vendor equipment – it will support
applications and hardware even with mix and match
vendors.
• Simplify moves/adds/changes
• Simplify troubleshooting – if problems are likely to down
the entire network, it is easier to isolate and fix.
 ADVANTAGES
• Support for future applications – it supports
multimedia, video conferencing etc with little
or no upgrade pain.
• Fault isolation – dividing the entire
infrastructure into simple manageable blocks.
• Helps reduce maintenance costs.
SAMPLE PICTURES
UNSTRUCTURED CABLING
 Networking
The first step is to establish the aims of network
implementation:
• Implementation of administrative and financial
database
• Staff access to company records
• Automation of letter, report or specification writing
• E-mail for staff
• Staff scheduling
• General Information automation
(including library, plans, graphics
and images)
• Learning or training aids
(interactive software)
• Computer skills training rooms
(word proessing, publishing,
CADD, spreadsheets, databases)
• Printer sharing
• File transfer
• Internet access (graphical, text,
news)
• Access to centralized information
sources (e.g. CD-ROM stacks)
• Automate software updates
• Centralize application software
 Choice of Software and Hardware
• Identify which software
applications the network
operating system and hardware
must support.
• Exclude software or machines
that will be discarded for other
reasons from further networking
considerations.
After answering the following questions, it
should be possible to identify which PC’s will
initially be networked, and what existing
“legacy” networks should be supported and
grafted to the new network.
a) Which software packages are
proposed to implement the target
applications?
b) What hardware platform (type, size
and speed of PC) will be required
to run the software?
c) Can existing computers be used, or
will they require replacement?
d) Can existing computers be upgraded (higher speed
CPU, add DOS card to Mac, etc)?
e) If existing computers require replacement, should they
be redeployed to less demanding tasks?
f) To what extent will expenditure on replacement PC’s
and software reduce the available budget for
networking?
 OVERVIEW IN NETWORKING
NETWORK
– it is a series of computers that can
communicate with one another by virtue of
their interconnectivity.
 OVERVIEW IN NETWORKING
TOPOLOGY
– it is the shape or the design layout of a
network.

Two types of topologies:

• Physical topology
• Logical topology
 Physical Topology
– the shape that the network cable makes when
connecting devices.
 Two Basic Connectivity Methods
• Point-to-point connection – only two devices
are involved.
Ex., a server connected to a router

• Multipoint connection – multiple machines

share the cabling.
Ex., an Ethernet
 Types of Physical Topologies
• Star topology – each device or
computer has its own cable that
connects to a central point, such as a
hub, switch, multipoint repeater or a
Multistation Access Unit (MAU).
Types of Physical Topologies
• Bus topology – every device is connected
directly to a central cable, removing the
need for a hub. Bus topologies consist of a
single cable with terminating resistors at
the end.
 Types of Physical Topologies
• Mesh topology – each network device
has a separate connection to every
other device.
Types of Physical Topologies
• Ring topology – each computer is
connected to the next, forming a closed
loop.
 Types of Physical Topologies
• Wireless topology – can be implemented in a
star (BSS), mesh (IBSS), or cellular
configuration (ESS).
– Basic Service Set (BSS)
– Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)
– Extended Service Set (ESS)
 Wireless Topology
• Basic Service Set (BSS) – consists of a wireless access
point (WAP) connected to a wired network.
 Wireless Topology
• Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) – enables each
wireless device to connect to other wireless devices
within range.
 Wireless Topology
• Extended Service Set (ESS) – also called cellular
topology, it consists of a series of overlapping
wireless cells each with its WAP. Devices can move
among cells and remain connected to the network.
Table 1.1 Physical Topology comparison
Topology Shape Benefits Disadvantages
Star Central hub with Easy to troubleshoot and Expensive because of additional cabling and
multiple point-to-point configure. central hub.
connections to each A single device or cable A single point of failure at the hub level.
separate device. failure will not bring down
the network.
Bus Single cable connecting Uses very little cabling. The number of devices that can be
several devices in connected is limited.
multipoint connections, Difficult to troubleshoot.
terminated at each end. A single failure will bring the network
down.

Mesh All devices are Extremely reliable (virtually Uses the most cabling to implement.
connected to all other no down time). Has a high administrative overhead, making
devices in the network. Data has access to fastest it impractical.
paths and can load balance.

Ring Closed loop of cabling Signal is repeated at each Costly to implement.

connecting each device node. Depending on the actual implementation, a
in a ring. All devices have equal access. single failure will bring the network down.
Easier to troubleshoot than
bus.
Wireless Areas that are capable Devices can move Somewhat costly because of the newness
of transmitting data are throughout the network and of the technology.
arranged in cells. remain connected. Troubleshooting is difficult because there is
Extremely easy to no wire.
implement.
 Logical Topology
– the shape that the data makes when it travels
around the network.
 Types of Logical Topology
• Ring topology – sends data from one device to
another in a closed loop.
 Types of Logical Topology
• Bus topology – transmits data throughout the entire
network segment.
 Types of Logical Topology
• Cellular topology – similar to bus topology,
except each device can move between cells
without losing connectivity.
 Media Access Methods
A media access method refers to the manner a computer grain
and controls access to the network’s physical medium (defines
how the network places data on the cable and how it takes it off).
Common media access methods include the following:
• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA
• Token Passing
• Demand Priority

One of the primary concern with media access is to prevent

packets from colliding. A collision occurs when two or more
computers transmit signals at the same time.
 CSMA/CD
Carrier- Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.
• “Carrier Sense” means that each station on the LAN
continually listens to (test) the cable for the pretense of a
signal prior to transmitting.
• “Multiple Access” means that there are many computers
attempting to transmit and compete for the opportunity to
send data.
• “Collision Detection” means that when a collision is detected,
the station will stop transmitting and wait a random length of
time before transmitting. CSMA/CD works best in an
environment where relatively fewer, longer data frames are
transmitted. CSMA/CD is used on Ethernet networks.
 CSMA/CD operates as follows:
• a station that wishes to transmit on the network
checks to see if the cable is free
 CSMA/CD operates as follows:
• if the cable is free, the station starts transmitting
 CSMA/CD operates as follows:
• however, another station may have detected a free
cable at the same instant and also start transmitting:
the result is a collision
 CSMA/CD operates as follows:
• once the collision is detected, all stations
immediately stop transmitting
 CSMA/CD operates as follows:
• station then wait a random length of time before
checking the cable and then retransmit.
 CSMA/CA
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance
• Similar to CSMA/CD; the difference is that the
CD(collision detection) is changed to CA (collision
avoidance). Instead of detecting and reacting to
collisions, CSMA/CA tries to avoid them by having
each computer signal its intention to transmit
before actually transmitting. CSMA/CA is slower
than CSMA/CD
CSMA/CA is used on Apple networks.
 TOKEN PASSING
• Collisions are eliminated under token passing
because only a computer that possesses a free
token (a small data frame) is allowed to transmit.
Transmission from a station with higher priority
take precedence over station with lower priority.
Token passing works best in an environment where
relatively large number of shorter data frames are
being transmitted.
• Token passing is used on Token Ring and ArcNet
networks.
 How token passing works
• a station that wishes to transmit on the network
waits until the token is free
• the sending station transmits its data with the
token
• the token travels to the recipient without stopping
at other stations
• the receiving station receives
 Demand Priority
• This is a new Ethernet media access method that
will probably replace popular but older CSMA/CD.
These are characteristics of Demand Priority.
• Used with 100 Mbps Ethernet
• requires a “smart” hub
• station must require permission from hub before
they can transmit
• Stations can transmit and receive at the same time
• transmission can be prioritized.
 Media Types
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) – flexible wiring
that includes two or more pairs of twisted
cabling which help reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI), also known as cross-talk.
 Media Types
Grade Max. Data Rate Freq Max. Number of Uses
Distance Pairs

Cat1 1 Mbps 1 MHz 90 m 1 Telephone and ISDN

Cat2 4 Mbps 1 MHz 90 m 2 Token ring
Cat3 10 Mbps 16 MHz 100 m 3 or 4 10BaseT
Cat4 16 Mbps 16 MHz 100 m 4 Token ring
Cat5 100 Mbps 100 MHz 100 m 4 10BaseT and 100BaseT
1 Gbps if using 155 Mbps ATM
all 4 pairs
Gigabit Ethernet

Cat5e 1 Gbps 100 MHz 100 m 4 Gigabit Ethernet

Cat6 4-10 Gbps 250 MHz 100 m 4 Gigabit Ethernet, uses all
4 pairs
Cont.. UTP categories

• Cat 6A Cable – Supports 10G Base-T standard for bandwidths

up to 10 Gbps over a maximum distance of 100 meters. Cat
6A standard can support frequencies in the range of 0-500
Mhz.

• Cat 7 Cable – Supports 10G Base-T standard for bandwidths

up to 10 Gbps over a maximum distance of 100 meters. Cat 7
standard can support frequencies in the range of 0-600 Mhz.
It offers better performance and improved cross talk
suppression over the Cat 6A cables.

• Cat 7A Cable – Supports 10G Base-T standard for bandwidths

up to 10 Gbps over a maximum distance of 100 meters. In
addition to this, they can also support 40 Gbps bandwidth for
around 50 meters and 100 Gbps bandwidth for around 15
meters. They support frequencies in the range of 0-1000 Mhz.
 Media Types
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) – similar to
UTP except for the heavy outer covering,
or shield, that acts as a ground. STP is
highly resistant to noise interference.

• Coaxial Cables – consists of a copper

conductor that lies in the center of the
cable, surrounded by insulation. A
braided or mesh outer covering (a
conductor) surrounds the insulation. A
PVC jacket encases the covering.
 Types of Coaxial Cables
• ThickNet – also called RG-8, is older and one of the first
types of coaxial cables used in networks (physical bus
topologies). Its thick shielding makes it fairly immune
to noise but also very rigid and difficult to work with.
Requires vampire taps and both ends must be
terminated with 50-ohm resistors.

• ThinNet – also called RG-58, is more flexible and easier

to work with than ThickNet. BNCs (British Naval
Connectors) are used for connectivity, and 50-ohm
resistors are required at each end.
 Media Types
• Fiber Optic Cables – is a thin strand of glass
enclosed in a glass tube and shielded by PVC
plastic covering.

• Wireless Media – wireless media is simply the

atmosphere. The data rate and the distance
depend on the wireless protocol implemented.
 Table 1.3 Media Types
Media Advantages Disadvantages
UTP Flexible, commonly used, Susceptible to EMI.
inexpensive, easy to install. Limited to 100-meter length
STP Resistant to EMI Used only in token ring and IBM
networks.
Limited to 100-meter length
RG-8 Resistant to EMI Requires resistors and vampire
(ThickNet) taps.
Rigidity makes it difficult to work
with.
RG-58 Fairly flexible. Requires a resistor.
(Thin Net) Easy to network a few computers. Limited to 185-meter length.
Thinner shield makes it more
susceptible to EMI than ThickNet.
Fiber optic Immune to noise. Brittle, expensive, and requires
Capable of extremely long additional training and equipment
distances. to install and manage.
Wireless No cables are installed. Can be a security concern.
Inexpensive and easy to configure. Distance is dictated by protocol.
 Media Connectors
• RJ-11 (Registered Jack 11) – the
common telephone connector
interface, both the receptacle and
the plug, usually uses 4
conductors.

• RJ-45 – the most common media

connector for Ethernet 10BaseT,
100BaseT, and 1000BaseT
networks. It has 8 conductors, but
may use only for or all depending
on the type of protocol.
 Media Connectors
• AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) – used for
both ThickNet and ThinNet, it has 15 pins
on one end that connects directly into the
NIC. The other end is connected to a short
cable that connects to a transceiver, which
connects directly to the main cable.

• BNC (British Naval Connectors) – also used

for ThickNet and ThinNet, they look like
cable TV connectors with a central pin that
connects to the primary conducting wire.
The connector has a T shape which allows
it to hook into the straight bus.
 Media Connectors
• ST – is a modular fiber optic connector
used for duplex communications. It has
a circular female connector on each
side.
• SC – also a modular fiber optic
connector, it is provided for simplex
communications and has rectangular
female interfaces on each side.
• RS-232 – used to be one of the most
important interface for remote
networking. This is the serial interface
with either 9 or 25 pins found on the PC.
It is used solely with analog services and
modems.
 NETWORKING COMPONENTS
CENTRAL HUBS IN STAR TOPOLOGIES
• Hub – is the center of a network segment where data can arrive from
one port and be forwarded out the other ports. It is the center of
activity on the network segment.

• Passive hubs – a conduit that receives a signal and split it out all ports.

• Active hubs – retransmits and regenerates the signal out through all
ports, and requires a power source. They have troubleshooting tools in
the form of link lights, error lights, and collision lights.
Repeater – a device that receives a signal from one port,
copies it, and regenerates the signal to send out its other
port.

• Passive repeaters – copies the signal it receives from

one port and transmits it to the other port. Used to fix
a break in the cable or to connect two cables.

• Active repeaters – regenerates the signal (requires a

power source). Used to extend the length of the cable
beyond its signaling limitations.
• Hybrid hubs include one or two additional ports for
different types of wiring.

• Hubs in Token Ring Networks – MAUs

A Multistation Access Unit (MAU) is a special type of hub
used for token ring networks. The MAU actively regenerates
signals as it transmits data around the ring.

• BRIDGES
A bridge is a device used to connect LAN segments and
forward data packets based on the MAC address in the frame
header. Bridges can connect networks that use different
types of media.
• SWITCHES
Just as a hub is considered a multiport repeater,
a switch is basically a multiport bridge. The
switch creates a temporary switched or
dedicated path between the port where the
frame (data) originated and the port containing
the destination.
• ROUTERS
A routers connects multiple LANs together, similar
to bridges and switches. The difference is that while
bridges and switches filter data based on the
physical addresses, routers filter data based on
logical addresses (including the network segment
address). Routers are designed to connect different
types of media, topologies, and even networks using
different media access methods (as long as the
networks share a common networking protocol).
• GATEWAYS
Gateways connect networks using different topologies and
entirely distinct network protocols. You will see gateways in
networks that use mainframes and minicomputers.

• WIRELESS ACCESS POINTS

A wireless access point (WAP) is the equipment used to
interconnect with multiple wireless devices. A WAP
concentrates data communications in a local area, creating a
cellular topology. WAPs are able to communicate with one
another so data transmissions can easily pass from one area
to another.
• MODEMS
The modem (modulator/demodulator)
translates digital signals that are created
on the computer to analog signals that
are used by the telephone system or
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network).

• NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS

A network interface card (NIC) allows a
computer to connect to a LAN and
transmit data at the speed of the type of
network. Each NIC is built specifically for
a type of network protocol and topology.
 NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES
Table 2-1 The IEEE 802 Series
IEEE Specification Description

802.2 The Logical Link Control (LLC) protocol specification used by the other 802
standards

802.3 Ethernet: 10BaseT, 10Base2, 10Base5

802.3u Fast Ethernet 100BaseT

802.4 Token bus

802.5 Token ring

802.6 Metropolitan area network based on bidirectional fiber optic bus topology

802.11a Fast Wireless LANs up to 54Mbps

802.11b Wireless LANs up to 11Mbps

 Ethernet (802.3) and LLC (802.2)
Ethernet was the product of the research and
development efforts of three companies in the
1970’s: Digital, Intel, and Xerox (collectively
known as DIX). Later on, the IEEE based its 802.3
standard on the DIX specification.
Table 2-2 Ethernet Characteristics
Media access method CSMA/CD

Logical topology Bus

Physical topology Bus, star

Cabling Coaxial, UTP, Fiber optics

10BaseT
• Uses four-pair UTP wiring (commonly Cat5) using RJ-45
connectors
• Each cable is connected from each network device to a
central hub in a physical star topology
• Signals are repeated and forwarded to all other nodes
on the network (logical bus topology)
• Limited to 1024 devices on a segment with a maximum
of 1024 network segments
• UTP has a maximum distance of 100 meters (328 feet)
10BaseF
• Implementation of Ethernet 802.3 over fiber
optic cabling
• Offers only 10Mbps data transfer rate
10BaseF
• Implementation of Ethernet 802.3 over fiber
optic cabling
• Offers only 10Mbps data transfer rate
10Base2
• Also called ThinNet
• Uses BNC connectors implemented as both physical
and logical bus topology using RG-58 cabling
• Follows the 5-4-3 rule: 5 segments in series, 4
repeaters between segments, 3 segment populated
with devices
• Minimum distance for cables between workstations
must be at least ½ meter
• The maximum segment length is 185 meters
• Limited to 30 devices on each segment
• All five segments cannot be longer than 925 meters
10Base5
• Also called ThickNet
• Requires an external transceiver to attach to the network
interface card on each device (unlike ThinNet NICs that have
built-in transceivers) using an AUI connector. The transceiver
then clamps onto the cabling (vampire tap)
• Can also use BNC connectors
• Follows the 5-4-3 rule
• The minimum cable distance between each transceiver is 2.5
meters
• The maximum segment length is 500 meters
• Can have up to 100 devices on each network segment
• All five segments cannot exceed 2,500 meters Attachment
Unit Interface
100BaseFX
• Implementation of Fast Ethernet over fiber optic.
• It runs over multimode fiber optic uses LEDs to
transmit data and are thick enough that the light
signals bounce off the walls of the fiber. The
dispersion of the signal limits the length of the
multimode fiber.
• Single mode fiber optic cables uses injected lasers to
transmit the data along fiber optic cable with an
extremely small diameter. Because the laser signal
can travel straight w/o bouncing and dispersing, the
signal can travel much farther than multimode.
 Table 2-3 Ethernet Standards
Topology
Max. segment Max. devices per Max. # of
Ethernet Standard Cabling
length segment segments
Physical Logical
10BaseT Cat3Cat5 UTP Star Bus 100 m 1024 1024

10BaseF* Fiber optic

10Base2 Thin coaxial Bus Bus 185 m 30 5

10Base5 Thick coaxial Bus Bus 500 m 100 5

10BaseFX** Fiber optic

100BaseT4 Cat3 UTP Star Bus 100 m 1024 1024

100BaseTX Cat5 UTP Star Bus 100 m 1024 1024

1000BaseT*** Cat5/5e UTP Star Bus 100 m 1024 1024

*Ethernet over fiber optic cabling

**Fast Ethernet over fiber optic cabling
***Gigabit Ethernet
• Token Ring (802.5)
• Like the Ethernet standard, Token Ring
networking was developed by IBM and later
adopted by IEEE for the 802.5 standard.
Table 2-4 Token Ring Characteristics
Media access method Token passing

Logical topology Ring

Physical topology Star

Cabling UTP, STP

Wireless (802.11b)
• IEEE 802.11b is considered wireless Ethernet, with data throughput of up
to 11Mbps.

Fiber Optics
• Developed in the mid-1980s by the American National standards Institute
(ANSI), FDDI (fiddey) has both a physical and logical ring topology. It uses
a dual ring topology in which nodes are connected to each of the two
rings.. This topology also uses token passing for media access. One ring is
considered primary and is used for all data transmission. The second ring
is used for backup in case one of the brittle fiber optic cables breaks.

Benefits:
• Immunity to electromagnetic and radio-frequency interference
• Long-distance capabilities
• Large capacity for data throughput
• Resistance to traditional wiretap methods
Types of Cables and Connecting a Network
Devices
Straight-Through Cable - Four-pair, eight-wire,
straight-through cable, which means that the
color of wire on Pin 1 on one end of the cable is
the same as that of Pin 1 on the other end. Pin 2
is the same as Pin 2, and so on. The cable is
wired to either EIA/TIA T568B or T568A
standards for 10BASE-T Ethernet, which
determines what color wire is on each pin.
Crossover Cable - A crossover cable means that the
second and third pairs on one end of the cable will be
reversed on the other end. The pin-outs are T568A on
one end and T568B on the other end. All 8 conductors
(wires) should be terminated with RJ-45 modular
connectors. Crossover cable conforms to the structured
cabling standards. If the crossover cable is used between
switches, it's considered to be part of the "vertical"
cabling. Vertical cabling is also called backbone cabling. A
crossover cable can be used as a backbone cable to
connect two or more switches in a LAN, or to connect two
isolated hosts to create a mini-LAN. This will allow the
connection of two hosts or a server and a host without
the need for a hub between them.
Rollover Cable - A 4-pair "rollover" cable. This type of
cable is typically 3.05 m long but can be as long as 7.62 m.
A rollover cable can be used to connect a host or dumb
terminal to the console port on the back of a router or
switch. Both ends of the cable have RJ-45 connectors on
them. One end plugs directly into the RJ-45 console
management port on the back of the router or switch. Plug
the other end into an RJ-45-to-DB9 terminal adapter. This
adapter converts the RJ-45 to a 9-pin female D connector
for attachment to the PC or dumb terminal serial (COM)
port. A DB25 terminal adapter is also available to connect
with a PC or dumb terminal. This adapter uses a 25 pin
connector. Figure 18 shows a rollover console cable kit.
CONNECTING A NETWORK DEVICES
 Fiber Optics
An optical transmission system has three key components:
the light source, the transmission medium, and the detector.
Conventionally, a pulse of light indicates a 1 bit and the
absence of light indicates a 0 bit. The transmission medium
is an ultra-thin fiber of glass or plastic. The detector
generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it. By
attaching a light source to one end of an optical fiber and a
detector to the other, we have a unidirectional data
transmission system that accepts an electrical signal,
converts and transmits it by light pulses, and then
reconverts the output to an electrical signal at the receiving
end.
Optical fiber links are used in all types of
networks, LAN and WAN. The frequency range
of fiber optics is approximately 180 THz to 330
THz.
There are two types of fiber optics cables:
• Multimode fiber
• Single-mode fiber
Warming: The laser light used with single-mode
has a longer wavelength than can be seen. The
laser can seriously damage eyes. Do not look at
the near end of a fiber that is connected to a
device at the far end. Do not look into the
transmit port on a NIC, switch, or router.
Remember to keep protective covers over the
ends of fiber and inserted into the fiber-optic
ports of switches and routers. Be very careful!
 Client/Server Networks
• In client/server networks, workstations rely on
data and services from one or more
centralized servers. These servers can control
various systems including applications,
printing, communication, and administration.
 What are client?
• Clients are PCs or workstations on which users
run applications. Clients rely on servers for
resources, such as files, devices, and even
processing power.
 What are servers?
• Servers are powerful computers that manage
disk drives, printer services, network traffic,
and other network resources.
Advantages of Client/Server Networks
• Centralization. Centralization allows easier and more efficient
management. This is especially true in reference to file
storage. In a centralized file-management environment, you
control file and directory names, locations, sizes, and so on.
The drawback to this, of course, is that you’re responsible for
organization.
• Security. Most client/server environments have discretionary
access control, which allows you to incisively grant or deny
access to files, directories, and resources based on user, host,
time, or date.
• Logging. Finally, client/server networks typically have
excellent logging facilities, allowing you to debug your
network sessions.
 Disadvantages of Client/Server
Networks
• Centralization. While centralized resources and
management are definite advantages, if your servers
go down, so does your productivity. Clients rely on
the server for data. In most cases, if the server dies,
your clients die with it. For this reason, you should
always have several, full-featured workstations on
hand.
• Complexity. Client/server networks are more difficult
to configure and administer. This can add to your cost
(for example, you may have to train your staff).
• Expense. Server operating systems, software, and
hardware are more expensive than their peer-to-
peer counterparts.
 Types of server
• Application servers
• Communications servers
• Directory services servers
• Fax servers
• File servers
• Internet servers
• Mail servers
• Print server
 Types of server
• Application Servers
• Application servers house applications such as
ledgers, databases, and office-oriented programs. In
an application server-based network, clients rarely
store information locally. Instead, clients make
inquiries and send updates to the servers.
• The principal advantage of application servers is
centralized management of data. Also, application
servers obviate the need to install full-blown
applications on client workstations. This saves space
and money.
 Types of server
• Communications Servers
• Communications servers control traffic
between LANs, WANs, mainframes, the
Internet, and other communication
transmission media. Typically, communications
servers functions as entrances or gateways
into private networks, using a wide range of
networking devices (for example, modems,
routers, or dedicated lines).
 Types of server
• Directory Services Server
• Directory services server contain indexes of
users, nodes, and network servers. Their chief
function is to enable easy administration of
large networks. Often, directory service
servers provide an index of absolutely
everything on the network.
 Types of server
• Fax Servers
• Fax servers manage network fax traffic
through one or more fax/modem cards. Users
request faxes that have been sent or received
with software on their client or workstation. In
turn, the server reports (and can deliver)
those faxes to the user.
 Types of server
• File Servers
• File servers centralize data storage. The server
stores files, and the client requests them.
Commonly used for development in software
design, file servers are excellent for use in
collaborative work environments.
 Types of server
• Internet Servers
• Internet servers manage Internet or intranet
traffic. They allow you to create and publish
Web pages, sell products over the World Wide
Web, and gather contacts and feedback.
THE OSI MODEL

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model describes a structured set of seven
protocol layers interconnecting as a stack. This
protocol stack model shows how the protocol
layers can communicate among open systems.
 Application
Layer 7

The three top layers handle

Presentation Presentation Upper the movement of data
Layer 6 Layer 6 layers between applications

Session
Layer 5

Transport The two middle layers handle

Layer 4 Middle the movement of data between
layers network segments
Network
Layer 3

Data-link
Layer 2 The bottom two layers provide the
Lower physical and logical topology and
layers enable the movement of data
Physical
across a single network segment
Layer 1
• The Physical Layer

• The physical layer is responsible for the transmission of raw

data in the form of a stream of bits across physical media.
Layer 1’s specification comprise (1) the media interface, (2) the
topology, and (3) the signaling methods used across the media.

Examples: RS-232 interface, Gigabit Ethernet (also covers the Data

Link Layer)

Note that one protocol may encompass more than one layer.
• The Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is the only layer with two (2)
sub-layers: Media Access Control (MAC) and
Logical Link Control (LLC). Layer 2 supplies
hardware addresses, identifies errors, and
manages flow control.

Examples: Ethernet, token ring

• Media Access Control (MAC)
• The media access control sub-layer defines how devices are able to gain
access to the media. It also maintains the hardware address for the
device.
There are three (3) types of MAC:

• Contention – using this method, devices have immediate access to the

media but only transmit when they have data. This method is subject to
collision.

• Polling – in this method, a central mechanism regulates network traffic by

polling each device and determining whether it is ready to transmit data.

• Token passing – the second most common type, it is used on both token
ring and FDDI.

• MAC Address – also called the hardware address, it is assigned to every

NIC attached to the network segment. Each MAC address is unique to
each interface: manufacturers assign MAC addresses to the NIC.
• Logical Link Control (LLC)

• The logical link control sub-layer is responsible

for logical link functions of single or multiple
connections using control packets called Protocol
Data Units (PDUs). The LLC primarily provides
flow control and frame sequencing services.
• A PDU contains all the necessary protocol
information in the header.
• Network Layer
• The network layer provides the basics for internetworking,
which is the transmission of data from one physical segment
to a different segment (routing). This process involves:

• Providing an address for each network segment

• Providing a logical address for each device
• Routing and forwarding data
• Selecting a route (if there are multiple routes to the same
network segment)
• Discovering the routes to other network segments
• Error handling, congestion control, and packet sequencing

Examples: TCP/IP
• Transport Layer

• The transport layer provides for a transparent transfer of data between the sender
and receiver nodes. The control information in the transport-layer header provides
end-to-end recovery and flow control. This ensures that data is completely
transferred.

• The transport layer uses port numbers to name the ends (sender and receiver) of
logical connections. Layer 4 also handles multiplexing services.

• Transport layer protocols may either be

– Connection-oriented – also called reliable communications, connection-oriented protocols

determine whether the data it sent was received at the destination using acknowledgments.

Examples: TCP/IP

– Connectionless – also called unreliable communications (this does not mean that data is not
received at the destination), connectionless protocols do not receive acknowledgments when
data is received.

Examples: User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Multiplexing services enables a node to

communicate with multiple network nodes simultaneously.
• Session Layer

• The session layer establishes a connection

between applications and manages that
connection until it terminates it. Verification of
user IDs and passwords is handled in the
session layer.
• Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer provides the way for data to be

presented to the application. Encryption/decryption and data
compression/expansion are handled at this layer.

• The primary service that layer 6 protocols provide is formatting

data. The presentation layer uses the following types of data
translation:

• Bit order – the sending and receiving devices read each byte
from either the first or last bit received.

• Byte order – the sending and receiving devices read a string of

data from either the first or last byte received.
Application Layer

• The application layer provides a means for

data to be communicated over the networks
by user programs.

Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP

 ELEMENTS
• Entrance Facility (EF)
• Equipment Room (ER)
• Telecommunications Room (TR)
• Backbone Cabling
• Horizontal Cabling
• Work Area
 ENTRANCE FACILITY
• Where a Telecom or Internet provider’s
cabling enters the building
– T1, E1 lines for Internet connections
– Analog or digital telephone lines
– Wirings from other buildings
 EQUIPMENT ROOM
• Where computing, data storage, and
networking equipment are located
– File servers
– Network storage
– Routers, switches
 TELECOM ROOM
• Where horizontal and vertical backbone
cables are terminated
• Houses network or telecom equipment
• 1 TR per floor
 BACKBONE CABLING
• Any interconnection between main
distribution point, TR, EF, and ER
– Floor-to-floor (vertical)
– Building-to-building (inter-building)
– Between rooms (intra-building)
 HORIZONTAL CABLING
• Distributes a min 2 runs (1 voice, 1 data) of
cables to each end-user’s work area
• Runs through ceilings or under floors
– No taps, splices, splitters, diagonal runs
– Max length of 90m from TR to work area
– 5m for equipment and end-user patch cords
 WORK AREA
• At least 2 ports (1 voice, 1 data)
• Each outlet must be served by 1 run of cable
directly to TR (home-run)
 HORIZONTAL PATHWAYS
• Access floor (raised floor)
• Ceiling
• Conduits
• Cable trays and wire ways
 CONDUITS
• Electrical Metal Tubing (EMT)
• PVC
• Flexible tubing
 CABLE TRAYS AND WIREWAYS
• Rigid, rectangular pre-fabricated ducts or
troughs for housing cables
– Ladder or ventilated type without cover
– Solid with top cover
CABLING PRACTICE