History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist 1102)

UNIT ONE
INTRODUCING HISTORY
1.1. The Meaning and Uses of History
A. The Meaning of History
— The term history is derived from the Greek
word
“Istoria.”
—
 History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist 1102)
UNIT ONE
INTRODUCING HISTORY
• Istoria means “inquiry” which later became to
modern
• scholars to mean “facts of history.”
• — The first use of the term is attributed to
Herodotus.
• — Before Herodotus, no one has word for
history in the
• sense of writing a narration of past events.
 Cont…

• Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C)- the “father of

history.”
• — In ordinary usage, history means all the
things that have happened in the human past.
• — Academically, history can be defined as an
organized and systematic study of the past.
 Cont…

• History is the study of human society and its

interaction with the natural environment in the past.
• Greater part of event that happened in the past still
exists independently of the historian.
• What actually happened in the past is almost
infinite.
• Historians select topics/problems they wish to study.
 Cont…
• History is conventionally divided into ancient,
medieval and modern: periodization.
• The issue of continuity and change is the
concern of historical study.
B. The Uses of History
• History helps better understand the present
i.e., to understand current problems by tracing
their origins in the past.
 Cont…
• History provides a sense of identity. It helps to
understand who we are and where we fit in
the world.
• History provides the basic background for
other disciplines including social science and
natural science History teaches critical skills;
such as evaluating sources, interpreting and
analyzing evidences & making arguments.
 Cont…
• History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination.
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
1. Sources
• Historians are not creative writers like novelists.
• Their works must be supported by evidence
arising from sources. Sources are broadly
classified into primary and secondary.
 Cont…

• Primary sources are surviving traces of the

past available to us in the present. They are
original or firsthand in their proximity to the
event both in time and in space.
Eg.,inscriptions, manuscripts, travel accounts
• artifacts, fossils, ruins of buildings diaries,
memoirs, letters
 Cont…

• Secondary sources are interpretation of

primary ones, written long after the event has
occurred. Eg.,Research works and literary
works Books and biographies Published stories
and movies Oral sources (oral data)-either oral
traditions or oral history.
• They are valuable to study and document the
history of non-literate societies.
 Cont…

• No history work can be taken as final. New

sources make possible new historical
interpretations.
2. Methods: refer to the ways by which
historians:
• collect evidences of past events, evaluate that
evidences, present a meaningful discussion of
the subject.
 Cont…

1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia & the Horn of Africa

• Historiography is the history of historical writing.
• It deals with how knowledge of the past is
obtained and transmitted. It studies the course of
the growth of historical writing.
• Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.)
introduced the organized study and narration of
the past.
 Cont…

• Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.) was the most

important early
• figure in Chinese historical writing.
• History emerged as an academic discipline in
the second half of the 19 c.
• Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886) founded
history as an independent discipline in Berlin.
• Ranke is praised as the “father of modern
historiography.”
 Cont…

Ancient travel accounts: Eg.,

1. Periplus of the Erythrean Sea:
• the earliest known reference on history of the region.
• written in the first century A.D.
• a handbook of anonymous author
• Christian Topography:
• a copy of the Adulis inscription (Greek script about
• unknown Aksumite king).
• composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6 c A.D.
• ◦are hand writings, both secular and spiritual.
 Cont…

• Manuscripts:
• whose values are essentially religious. provide
insights into the country’s past.Eg.,
manuscript that dates to the 7th century was
discovered in Abba Gerima Monastery, Tigray.
A manuscript that was produced in the 13th
century was discovered in Haiq Istifanos
monastery, Wollo.
 Cont…

• Hagiographies:
• are of Ethiopian Orthodox Church and
Mosques origin. offers insight into the life of
saints/martyrs. Invariably written in Ge’ez
discuss the issues of both states and religions.
Eg., A hagiography of St. Teklehaymanot,
Shewa. A hagiography of Shaykh Ja’far Bukko
of Gattira, Wollo.
 Cont…

• Chronicles:
• are writings, past and contemporary, about
the monarch. recognized scribes or clergymen
around the court first appeared in the
fourteenth century are known for their
factual, not analytical detail.
 Cont…

• Accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors:

• left first hand accounts about Ethiopia and the
Horn. Eg., al-Masudi had a recorded in the
10th century Ibn Battuta had documented in
the 14th century. Shihab al-Din composed
Futuh al Habesha in the 16th C. Al-Haymi, who
led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to Gonder.
 Cont…

• Accounts of European travelers &

missionaries:
• cover religious & political developments in
Ethiopia. include the country’s foreign
relations. Eg., The Prester John of the Indies,
composed by Francisco Alvarez Travels to
discover the Source of the Nile, produced by J.
Bruce.
 Cont…

• Ethiopian Studies in Europe

• — Foreign writers also developed interest in
Ethiopian studies. Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704)-
German writer who founded Ethiopian studies
in Europe. wrote Historia Aethiopica (A History
of Ethiopia). In the 19th c, August Dillman
published two studies on ancient Ethiopian
history.
 Cont…

Contribution of Ethiopian Writers Ethiopian

History. Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on the Oromo
written in 1593. Ludolf never visited Ethiopia
and the Horn. met Ethiopian priest Abba
Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) at Rome. Early 20th c
saw the emergence of ‘traditional’ Ethiopian
writers who made some departures from the
chronicle tradition.
 Cont…

• Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus- Tobiya

• Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn- Mengistna Yehizb
Astedader
• Blatten Geta Hiruy Welde-Selassie (The most
prolific writer of the early twentieth century)-
Ethiopiana Metema Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy
exhibited relative objectivity and
methodological sophistication.
 Cont…

• The 1930s Italian invasion interrupted the

Ethiopian efforts to study their national
history. After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria
formed a bridge between pre-1935 writers
and professional historians who came after
him. Yilma Deressa-Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra
Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen. Blatten Geta
Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel- Zikre Neger
 Cont…

• In the 1960s:
• history emerged as an academic discipline in
Ethiopia. Department of History in 1963 at the
(HSIU).The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES)
was founded in 1963. AAU launched MA and
PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively.
IES housed a number of Ethiopian and
expatriate scholars. IES has been publishing
the Journal of Ethiopian Studies.
 Cont…

• The professionalization of history in other parts of the

• Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. Africans urged to:
• – recast the historical record and recover evidence of
many lost pre-colonial civilizations— In an effort to
decolonize African history: conducted research centered
at School of Oriental and African Studies and University of
Wisconsin-Madison opened African universities and
trained their own scholars
• ◦sent many educated Africans overseas for further training
 Cont…

UNIT TWO
• 2.1. Human Evolution
• A. Biological Evolution
• Evolution is a process and gradual change in species over time.
• These changes are accumulated and passed through genes.
• Some mammal primates developed into Pongidae (such as
• gorilla, chimpanzee, etc.) while others evolved into Hominidae
• (human ancestors) through natural process after 170 million
years. Archaeological evidences suggest that East African Rift
• Valley is a cradle of humanity.
 Cont…
• Ardipithicus ramidus- 4. 2 million B.P., Aramis in Afar,
1994.
• Australopithecus afarensis, Selam- 3.3 million years
B.P, Dikika, Mille
• (Afar),2000. Australopithecus Afarnesis
(Lucy/Dinkinesh)- c. 3.18 million years B.P.), Hadar
(Afar) in 1974 A. D. Lucy was bipedal. Australopithecus
garhi-2.5 million B.P., at Bouri, Middle Awash B/N
1996 and 1999. Australopithecus anamensis was
discovered around Lake Turkana. Genus Homo-
 Cont…

• result of the development of human brain.

• -emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
• Fossils of Genus Homo discovered in Ethiopia and
the Horn include:
• i. Homo Habilis
• -derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human
• being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands).
• -dated 1.9 million years B. P.
• -has been found in the Lower Omo Valley.
 Cont…

• Homo erectus- walking upright -dated 1.6 million

years B. P. -invented fire and started burial practice.
-discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula and
Gadeb. originated in Africa; then spread out to the
rest of the world.
• iii. Homo sapiens - knowledgeable human being
• — Archaic Homo Sapiens dated 400, 000 years B.P.).
• Homo sapiens idaltu- 160, 000 years B.P
• — Homo Sapiens Sapiens- 100, 000 years B.P.
 Cont…

• — — Lower Omo and Middle Awash valleys are

the major centers of human evolution in Ethiopia.
Many fossils were discovered there.
• Cultural Evolution
• — is related to technological changes that brought
socio-economic transformation on human life.
• grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
• — Stone tools had been the first technologies to
be developed by human beings.
 Cont…
• By taking their features, ways and period of
production, stone tools can be grouped into:
• Mode I (Olduwan)-were crude and mono-
facial. - made and used by homo habilis.
• - produced by the direct percussion.- dated
2.52 million years B.P. Recent research traces
to 3.1m years B.P.
 Cont…

• The period of usage of stone tools is divided into

sub-periods: Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)-3.4 million to 11, 000 B.
P.— an age when human bein developed language.
a period when mankind sheltered in cave.
• — Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )-11, 000-10,000
B. P. was transition betwee Paleolithic and
Neolithic.
• Note: The oldest evidence of stone tool in the
world) was found at Dikika in 2010.
 Cont…
2.2. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
• Revolution: 10, 000-6, 000 B.P. Domestication was
great feature of Neolithic revolution. Domestication
of plants and animals due to:
• Declining number of animals and availability of
plants.
• Awareness of growing cycle of most of grass types.
• Domestication transformed mankind from mobile to
• sedentary way of life.
 Cont…

• The process of domestication took place

independently in the various parts of the
world, including Eth. and the Horn.People of
Ethiopia and the Horn domesticated Teff
(Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana),
nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete
ventricosum/edule),
 Cont…

• Sites (places) of the domestication of plants

and animals in Africa Horn include:
• - Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray
• -Aqordat and Barentu in Eritsrea
• -The Gobedra near Aksum
• - Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of
Lake Tana
• - Laga Oda near Charchar
 Cont…
2.3 The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
• — Ethiopia and the Horn is marked by ethnic
and linguistic diversity. — Linguists classify
languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into Afro-
Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan language super
families. — Afro-Asiatic: this super family is
sub-divided into Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic
language families.
 Cont…

• — Nilo-Saharan in turn is classified into Chari-Nile

and
• Koman language families. Language status and
classification did not remain static for it is affected
by several factors. Factors like population
movements, warfare, trade,
• religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc.
• have affected languages (some died out or in danger
of
• extinction, others thrived).
 Cont…

2.4 Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
• Indigenous religious are beliefs and practices,
which:
• are native to the region.
• have been practiced since ancient times.
• A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is:
• belief in one Supreme Being.
• attribution of special power to natural phenomena.
 Cont…

• Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the

existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
• Waqa's power is manifested through the
spirits called Ayyana. The are several major
spirits based on Waqeffanna. There is also a
belief that the dead exist in the form of a
ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of
his/her abode before death.
 Cont…

• There is thanks giving festival called Irrecha

besides New Year (Birbo) rite. Qallu and
Qallitti (female) have maintained link between
the Ayyana and the believers. Qallu ritual
house is called Galma. The Jila/Makkala
(delegated messengers) used to make
pilgrimage to get consecration of senior qallu
(Abba Muda).
 Cont…

• Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors:

black at top, red at center and white at
bottom. Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being
is known as Waa, whose eyes are represented
by elincho (sun) and agana(moon). Spirits like
Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard)
attracted prayers sacrifices at Shonkolla and
Kallalamo mountains.
 Cont…

• Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky

God.
• Religious officials known as Magnancho. The
Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and
had thanks giving ceremony called
Deraro.Konso religion centered on worship of
Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agew call the
Supreme Being Diban whom they believed is
Sky God.
 Cont…

• Itto and Albaja were well-known spiritual

leaders credited to introduce
Fandancho.Among sections of the Gurage,
there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit
(health goddess). Gurage and Yem had a
common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar).
 Cont…

• The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).

• So’ala clan was considered as the top in
religious duties as it was in charge of
Shashokam (the most vital deity). The Konta’s
spirit-cult was called Docho. Wolayta called
their God Tosa and their spirit Ayyana.
Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
Micho (goat spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency
spirit).
 Cont…

• Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of

Moytiliya (father’s spirit). Annual worship of
spirits was performed at a sacred place called
Mitta. sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo
or Pageta (Dubusha) offered there.
 Cont…

• The Wolayta also had the practice of

Chaganna (prohibited days to work). They also
chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka
(Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate.
Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa
had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
Keficho’s Supreme Being isYero and the spirit
Eqo.
 Cont…

• Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural

power Iqa. Rituals performed through
slaughtering animals.
• Gure Shuka was one of public prayer rituals.
The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in
Heaven). Rain, lightning thunder, rainbow, sun,
moon and other entities are manifestations or
signs of God. When a person dies soul departs
together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
 Cont…
• The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for
• the prevention of: drought, flooding, erosion, disease
and starvation within the community and their
surroundings.
• • Rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and
• bless are trusted to reach God.
• • Practices and beliefs of indigenous religion are fused
• with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of
mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
 Cont…
2.4.2. Judaism
• Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• clearly noticed in the 4 c AD, when the Bete-Israel
• refused to be converted to Christianity.
• The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot that differs
from
• Rabbinic Judaism. It is better see traditions
regarding the origin of Bete- Israel, one of the
ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont…

• Some portion of the Tribe of Dan migrated to

Ethiopia at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200
B.C.) The crisis after the death of King
Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) was followed by
Israel or Babylonian exile. Return to Ethiopia
of Menilek I, believed to be son of Solomon
and Makeda, Queen of Saba.
 Cont…

• Led by Azonos and Phinhas, Jews arrived in

Ethiopia in 6Th century A.D. Jewish
immigrants intermarried with the Agaws and
are today known as Bete-Israel. The Jews
appear to have been isolated from
mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium.
• They developed and lived for centuries in
northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
 Cont…
2.4.3. Christianity
• Before the introduction of Christianity, people
in northern part of historic Ethiopia wer
polytheists. They believed gods such as,
• Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
• Arwe (serpent-python god),
• Bahir (sea god) and
• Midir (earth god)
 Cont…

• Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius

converted King Ezana (r. 320-360) into Christianity.
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
Patriarch Atnatewos of Alexandria (328-373)
consecrated Frementius as the first Bishop of
Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
• In 1959, Abune Baslios was anointed the first
Ethiopian Patriarch. Christianity expanded to the
interior of the state by the Nine Saints who came
from the Mediterranean world.
 Cont…

• — The saints translated the bible into Geez and

founded monasteries.
• Then expansion of Christianity continued in
Zagwe period (1150-1270). It got fresh
momentum during the early Medieval Period
(1270-1527)
• Both Catholic and Protestant missionaries
preached
• their respective treaties in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont…

• — Protestants, particularly, were systematic in

preaching their faith in the region. They
adopted old names for Supreme Being and
used them as equivalent to God. They
established schools open to all children of
chiefs and farmers.
 Cont…

2.3.4. Islam
Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in
Mecca since 610 AD. The prophet faced
opposition from the Quraysh rulers. He sent
some of his early followers to Aksum. Armah Ella
Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al- Nejash),
gave the refugees asylum from 615-628 A.D.
Islam spread to the Horn of Africa through
peaceful ways including trade.
 Cont…

• A Muslim saint Sheikh Hussein of Bale spread

Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in
the 8 c AD. through Benadir coasts of
Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
 Cont…

UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THIRTEENTH
CENTURY
3.1 Emergence of States
1. Factors for the emergence of state
• The beginning of sedentary agriculture.
• Trade : facilitated the development of state
 Cont…
• Refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and
enforce laws. State was the outcome of
regular cultural process. Ethiopia and the Horn
is one of the regions in Africa where early
state formation took place.
 Cont…

3.2 Ancient States in Ethiopia and the Horn

• North and North East
Punt
• Punt was the earliest recorded state in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
.
 Cont…

• Da’amat
• The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the
south of Aksum.
• Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the
• fifth century BC. The followings are familiarized with
• Da’amat kingdom.
• ◦ Mukarib.- politico- religious title
• ◦ Almouqah -principal god
• ◦ Astarr - Venus god,
• ◦ Na’uran- light god
 Cont…
• ◦ Shamsi- sun god
• ◦ Sin - moon god
• The center of the kingdom was Yeha.
The Aksumite State
• The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
• Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to
• the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile
• Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
• According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea: Adulis on the western coast
of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum.
 Cont…

• Zoscales - king of Aksum, used to speak the

Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-
Roman world. Aksum also had relations with
Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
• Christian Topography also tells some
information about Aksum
• Written by Cosmas Indicopleustes.
• Describes commercial activities of the Red Sea
areas.
 Cont…

• Aksumite kings like Gadarat, Aphilas, Endybis,

Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II had extensive
contacts with the outside world notably with
the South Arabia. Aksum was one of the four
great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire,
Persia, China and Aksum) at the time as
recorded by a writer, Mani.
 Cont…

Decline of Aksumite Empire

a. Internal factor.
• Environmental degradation
• Plague infestation
• Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen
Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the
collapse of the Aksumite state
 Cont…

• External factor
• The destruction of the port of Adulis by the
Arabs around 702.
Indigenous script and calendar
• Art and architecture which greatly influenced
the post Aksumite periods. The Aksumite
obelisks and other church buildings (such as
Debre Damo) are best Examples Music (the
hymns of St. Yared)
 Cont…

• Zagwe Dynasty
Founded as the Aksumite center shifted southwards
to Kubar,
• rural highland of the Agaw. Merra Teklehaimanot
married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last
Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Merra-Teklehaimanot's
successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe,
Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c.
1150 to 1270,
 Cont…

• The Zagwe period was a golden age in

Ethiopia's art, architecture, paintings and the
translation works from Arabic into Ge'ez, well
developed as an extension of the Aksumite
civilization.
 Cont…

• They are not totally separated from the

surrounding rock.
• Their roofs or walls are still attached to the
rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bet Debresina/Mikael,
Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-
Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
 Cont…

• Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete

Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in
the shape of the Cross. Lalibela wanted to
establish the second Jerusalem to avoid
difficulties of Ethiopian Christians encountered
in their journey to the Holy Lands.
 Cont…

• The Downfall of Zagwe Dynasty

• a. Problems of royal succession
• b. Oppositions from groups claiming descent
from the
• ancient rulers of Aksum. Based on the legend of
the Queen of Sheba, Solomonic rulers claimed
the Zagwe rulers as “illegitimate” Yekuno-Amlak
(r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces
 Cont…

• defeated the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek at a battle in

• Gaynt and proclaimed the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty
East, Central, Southern, and Western States
• Bizamo:
• — Located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the present
• districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
• — It was founded in the eighth century and had early connections with
Damot.
• B. Damot:
• — Expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of Abay and
north of
• Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
• — Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.
 Cont…
• Enarya:
• — A kingdom in the Gibe region in
southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). the king
(Hinnare- Tato)
• — The real power rested with Mikretcho
(council)
• — Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson)
• — Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 Cont…
• D. Gafat:
• Lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on
• the south western periphery.
• It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to
• Harari and the Gurage.
• Practitioners of their own indigenous religion.
• paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
• Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names.
• The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of
• Awalamo.
 Cont…
• Muslim Sultanates
• A. Shewa:
• — Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who set up the Makhzumite
• Sultanate in 896 A. D
• B. Fatagar:
• — Founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11 century
• C. Dawaro
• — located between upper waters of Awash and Wabi- Shebelle
• extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.
• — Valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn
• Fad Allah el-umari.
• — Dawaro had a currency called hakuna
 Cont…

• D. Bali:
• — It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-
Shebelle River and extended southwards to
the Gannale Dirre River. Trade was mainly
based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep,
cloth It had strong army composed of cavalry
and infantry.
 Cont…

E. Ifat
• It was established by Umar Walasma, who
claimed descent t from Hashamite clan
• The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
• Inhabitants earned from wheat, sorghum,
chat, millet and teff, and animal husbandry.
 Cont…

• 3.3 External Contacts

• A. Egypt - introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new
• pattern of relation between the region
• B. Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.- common
• commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians
• C. South Arabian Kingdoms
• The Legend of Prester John
• The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war
• fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the
• Muslims of the Middle East was in favor of the latter
• The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not
• known to Europe for over a century.
 Cont…

• The Europeans began to regard Ethiopian

Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John
since the only Christian kingdom between the
Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
 Cont…

• 3.4 Economic Formations

• The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
• Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’
produce.
• The tribute collected by bale-gults,
• Gult right that became hereditary was called
Riste-Gult
 Cont…

• B. Writing System
• Sabean language had an alphabet with paleographical
• writing from left to right and right to left alternatively.
• The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia
• date to the ninth century BC.
• By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an
• abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right
• with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern
• vocalized alphabet.
• Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has
• immense contribution to the development of literature,
• art and the writing of history.
 Cont…

• C. Calendar
• 1. Oromo calendar
• Has been based on astronomical observations of moon in
• conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group of stars
• called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star).
• There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a
• year. 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have to
• develop Oromo calendar
• 2. The Sidama calendar
Rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
• which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month
has 29 days.
 Cont…

• Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for

Qetela or popular
• 3. Ethiopic solar calendar
• Has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added
every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which
comprise a thirteenth month.
 Cont…

• 4. The Muslim (Islamic) calendar

• A lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354
or 355 days.It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which
Mohammed and his followers made flight from Mecca to
Medina and established the first Muslim community
(ummah). 5. Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya,
Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating
system.
• D. Numerals
• Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the
• beginning of fourth century AD.
 Cont…

• Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the

Hebrew,
• Arabic and Greek numerals.
The End