Modern Control Theory(MCT)

Lecture-1

Introduction to MCT And

Matrices & Vectors

By:- Ashish Kumar

Assistant professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engg.
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 Topics to be covered
 Classical Control Theory vs. Modern Control Theory
 Def. of Matrix
 Different types of Matrices
 Determinant of Matrices
 Rank of a Matrix
 Trace of a Matrix

 Eigen Values &Eigen Vectors

 QUADRATIC FORMS AND DEFINITE

MATRICES

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Classical Control Theory vs. Modern Control Theory

 In the preceding subject, we have seen that the root-

locus methods and the frequency-response methods are
quite powerful for the analysis and design of feedback
control systems.
 The analysis and design are carried out using transfer

functions, together with a variety of graphical tools

such as root-locus plots, Nyquist plots ,bode plots,
Nichols chart, etc.
 These techniques of the so called classical control

theory .

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 Cont…
 The classical design methods suffer from certain limitations
due to the fact that the transfer function model is applicable
only to linear time-invariant systems, and that there too it is
generally restricted to single input single output (SISO)
systems.

 The classical design approach becomes highly cumbersome

for use in multi-input, multi output(MIMO) systems.

 There is no information about internal behavior of the

system.

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 Cont…
 The limitations of classical method based on transfer
function models have led to the development of state
variable approach of analysis and design.

 It is a direct time domain approach which provides a

basis for modern control theory.

 It is a powerful technique for the analysis and design of

linear and nonlinear ,time-invariant or time-varying
MIMO systems.

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Matrix Algebra

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

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 An rectangular array of nm elements. n= rows, m=no. of columns. aij=
(i,j)th element.
a11 a12 ... a1n 
a a22 ... a2n 
 21 
A   . . . . 
 
 . . . . 

an1 an2 ... ann 

 Diagonal Matrix :- all elements are zero except diagonal elements.

a11 0 ... 0 
0 a22 ... 0 
 
  . . . . 
 
. . . . 
 0 0 ... ann 

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 Unity Matrix :- A diagonal matrix whose all elements are unity.

1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
I   
. . . .
 
0 0 ... 1
 Transpose Matrix:- If row & column of a matrix A are interchanged then
we get transposed matrix of A.

a11 a21 ... an1 

a a22 ... an2 
  
12
AT
. . . .
 
a
 1m a2n ... anm 

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 Determinant of a matrix:- defined only for square matrix.
Represented as IAI or detA is a scalar valued function of A. found with the
help of minors & cofactors.
a) Minors:- minor mij of any element aij is determinant of a matrix of
order of (n-1)x(n-1) obtained from A removing row & column containing
aij.
b) Cofactors:- cofactors cij of the element aij is defined by the equation:-
cij  (1)i  j mij

So determinant is given by:- n

A  a
j1
ckj
kj

K = any arbitrary row.

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• Singular Matrix:- A matrix whose associated determinant is zero.
• Non –singular Matrix:- A matrix whose associated determinant is not
equal to zero.
• Adjoint Matrix:- found by replacing each element of a matrix A by its
cofactor & then transposing.
c11 c21 ... cn1 
adjA = c c22 ... cn2 
 12   cji 
. . . .
 
c1n c2n ... cnn 
• Inverse Matrix:- inverse of a matrix is given by:-
A-1 = adjA/ IAI
also we have:- A A-1 = I = A-1A

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 Symmetric matrix

A symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is equal to

its transpose. Formally, matrix A is symmetric if

The following 3×3 matrix is symmetric:

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 Skew Symmetric Matrix
A skew symmetric (or anti-symmetric or anti-metric)
matrix is a square matrix whose transpose is also its
negative; that is, it satisfies the condition
-A = AT
For example, the following matrix is skew-symmetric:

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Complex Conjugate

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 Hermitian matrix
A Hermitian matrix (or self-adjoint matrix) is
a square matrix with complex entries that is equal to its
own conjugate transpose

matrix A is Hermitian if it satisfies the relation

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 Skew-Hermitian Matrix
In linear algebra, a square matrix with complex entries is
said to be Skew-hermitian or anti-hermitian if
its conjugate transpose is equal to its negative.

Matrix A is skew-Hermitian if it satisfies the relation

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 Rank of a Matrix
The maximum number of linearly independent rows in
a matrix A is called the row rank of A, and the
maximum number of linearly independent columns
in A is called the column rank of A.
Rank (A m*n) <=min(m,n)

r3=2r1-r2
r4=-3r1+2r2

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 Find Rank of the Matrix
1.

2.

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2.
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Trace of a Matrix can be defined as the
sum of the main diagonal elements.

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Eigen Values
&
Eigen Vectors
 In linear algebra, an eigenvector or characteristic
vector of a square matrix is a vector that does not change
its direction under the associated linear transformation.

In other words—if v is a vector that is not zero, then it is

an eigenvector of a square matrix A if Av is a scalar
multiple of v. This condition could be written as the
equation:
Av=λv

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 Where λ is a scalar known as the eigen
value or characteristic value associated with the
eigenvector v.

 Geometrically, an eigenvector corresponding to a real,

nonzero eigenvalue points in a direction that is stretched
by the transformation and the eigenvalue is the factor by
which it is stretched.

 If the eigenvalue is negative, the direction is reversed.

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 In this shear mapping the red arrow changes direction but the
blue arrow does not. The blue arrow is an eigenvector of this
shear mapping because it doesn't change direction, and since
its length is unchanged, its eigenvalue is 1

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Determine
i)

ii)

iii)

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

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

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

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 Vibration Analysis
The Eigen values are used to determine the natural
frequencies (or Eigen frequencies) of vibration, and the
eigenvectors determine the shape of these vibration modes

Practical Applications in Structural Engineering

Most structures from buildings to bridges have a natural

frequency of vibration. It means all these structures have
their own system of eigen vibrations and eigen frequencies.
Now external forces like wind and earthquake may cause
these structures to undergo vibrations.

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 Cont…
In case the frequency of these vibrations becomes equal to the
natural frequencies of these structures, vibrations with large
amplitudes are set up.
It is a phenomena called Resonance. This can lead to the
collapse of the structure by a process called aero elastic flutter
. One very famous example of the collapse of a structure due
to this phenomena is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) in
which the wind provided an external periodic frequency that
matched the bridge's natural structural frequency.

So vibration analysis of these structures are done at the time of

their design using eigen values and eigen vectors.

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Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940)

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 Mode Shape of a Tuning
Fork at Eigen frequency
440.09 Hz
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 In image processing, processed
images of faces can be seen as
vectors whose components are
the brightnesses of each pixel. The
dimension of this vector space is
the number of pixels. The
eigenvectors of the covariance
matrix associated with a large set of
normalized pictures of faces are
called eigenfaces; this is an
example of principal components
analysis. In the facial
recognition branch of biometrics,
eigenfaces provide a means of
applying data compression to faces
for identification purposes.
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 Research related to Eigen vision systems determining
hand gestures has also been made.
eigen voices represent the general direction of
variability in human pronunciations of a particular
utterance, such as a word in a language.
Based on a linear combination of such eigen voices, a
new voice pronunciation of the word can be
constructed.
These concepts have been found useful in automatic
speech recognition systems for speaker adaptation.

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 Cont…
 Eigen values can also be used to test for cracks or deformities in
structural components used for construction. When a beam is
struck, its natural frequencies (eigen values) can be heard or
measured. If the beam "rings," then it is not flawed. A dull
sound will result from a flawed beam because the flaw causes
the eigen values to change. Sensitive machines can be used to
"see" and "hear" eigen values more precisely.

 The eigen values can also be used to determine if a structure has

deformed under the application of a particular force. Eigen
values for the structure are measured before and after the
application of force. If a change in the eigen values is observed,
it means the structure has undergone deformation.
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 Eigen values were used by Claude Shannon to determine the
theoretical limit to how much information can be transmitted
through a communication medium like your telephone line or
through the air. This is done by calculating the eigenvectors and
eigen values of the communication channel (expressed a matrix),
and then water filling on the eigen values.

The eigen values are then, in essence, the gains of the

fundamental modes of the channel, which themselves are
captured by the eigen vectors.

Google uses the eigen vector corresponding to the maximal

eigenvalue of the Google matrix to determine the rank of a page
for search.

Eigenvectors are fundamental to principal components analysis

which is commonly used for dimensionality reduction in face
recognition and other machine learning applications.

Eigenvectors can also be used for latent semantic analysis, a NLP

technique for extracting topics and concepts from text documents.
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QUADRATIC FORMS AND
DEFINITE MATRICES
 QUADRATIC FORM

Let A denote an n x n symmetric matrix with real entries and

x denote an n x 1 column matrix.
Then,
Q = x’Ax
is said to be a quadratic form.

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For example,

consider the matrix 1 2 

[ A]   
 2 1 

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 Classification of the quadratic form Q
a: positive definite:
Q > 0 when x ≠ 0
b: positive semi-definite:
Q ≥ 0 for all x
c: negative definite:
Q < 0 when x ≠ 0
d: negative semi-definite:
Q ≤ 0 for all x
e: indefinite:
Q > 0 for some x and Q < 0 for some other x

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 Testing for Definiteness
Eigen values of A Nature of
quadratic form Q
All λi > 0 positive definite

All λi ≥ 0 positive semi-definite

All λi < 0 negative definite

All λi ≤ 0 negative semi-definite

some λi ≥ 0 and indefinite

some λi ≤ 0
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 summary
 Difference between classical and modern control
theory.
 Brief discussion about matrices operation
 Rank of matrices
 Eigen values and eigen vectors
 Quadratic norms and definite matrices

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Thank You

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