Unit-III

Combustion

1
Outline of the Unit-III

Combustion in CI and SI engines: Introduction, Stages of

combustion, Combustion parameters, Delay period and
Ignition Lag, Turbulence and Swirl, Effects of engine
variables on combustion parameters, Abnormal
combustion in CI and SI engines, Detonation and
knocking, Control of abnormal combustion, Types of
combustion chambers.

2
Introduction

 Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain

elements of the fuel like hydrogen and carbon with
oxygen liberating heat energy and causing an increase in
temperature of the gas.
 The conditions necessary for combustion are the
presence of combustible mixture and some means of
initiating the process.
3
Introduction

 The theory of combustion is a very complex subject and

has been a topic of intensive research for many years.
 In spite of this, not much knowledge is available
concerning the phenomenon of combustion.

4
 Homogeneous Mixture

 In spark-ignition engines a nearly homogeneous mixtures of

air and fuel is formed in carburettor where fuel and oxygen
molecules are more or less, uniformly distributed.
 Once the fuel vapour-air mixture is ignited, a flame front
appears and rapidly spreads through the mixture.
 The flame propagation is caused by heat transfer and
diffusion of burning fuel molecules from the combustion
zone to the adjacent layers of unburnt mixture.
5
 Homogeneous Mixture

 In a homogeneous mixture with an equivalence ratio, ɸ,

close to 1.0, the flame speed is normally of the order of
40 cm/s.
 However, in a spark-ignition engine the maximum flame
speed is obtained when ɸ is between 1.1 and 1.2, i.e.,
when the mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric.

6
 Heterogeneous Mixture

 In a heterogeneous gas mixture, the rate of combustion is

determined by the velocity of mutual diffusion of fuel
vapors and air and the rate of chemical reaction is of minor
importance.
 In heterogeneous mixture, combustion takes place in overall
lean mixture since, there are always local zones where ɸ
varies between 1.0 and 1.2 corresponding to maximum rate
of chemical reaction.
7
 Heterogeneous Mixture

 Ignition starts in this zone and the flame produced helps

to burn the fuel in the adjoining zones where the
mixture is leaner.
 Similarly, combustion in rich zones occurs due to high
temperature produced due to combustion initiated in the
zones where ɸ is 1.0 to 1.2.

8
Combustion in SI
Engines

9
 Introduction

 In a conventional SI engine, fuel-air mixture is compressed

during the compression stroke.

 Normally, combustion is initiated towards the end of

compression stroke at the spark plug by an electric discharge.

 Following inflammation, a turbulent flame develops,

propagates through the air-fuel premixture until it reaches
combustion chamber walls, then it extinguishes.

10
Stages of combustion in SI engines

11
Stages of combustion in SI engines

Sir Ricardo, Known as the father of engine research,

describes the combustion process in a SI engine as
consisting of three stages:
1. Ignition lag
2. Propagation of flame
3. Afterburning

12
Stages of combustion in SI engines

13
 Stages of combustion in SI engines

1. Ignition Lag (A--B)

 It is also known as preparation phase in which growth and
development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes
place.
 This is a chemical process depending upon both temperature
and pressure, the nature of the fuel and the proportion of the
exhaust residual gas.
 It also depends upon the relationship between the temperature
and the rate of reaction.
14
 Stages of combustion in SI engines

2. Propagation of flame (B--C)

 It is physical one and concerned with the spread of the flame
throughout the combustion chamber.
 The starting point of the second stage is where first
measurable rise of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram.
 The flame propagates practically at a constant velocity.
 The rate of heat release depends largely on the turbulence
intensity and also on the reaction rate which is dependent on
the mixture composition.
15
 Stages of combustion in SI engines

 The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat

release because combustion chamber volume remains
practically constant during this stage.

16
 Stages of combustion in SI engines

3. Afterburning (Point C)
 The starting point for this stage is usually taken at the
instant at which the maximum pressure is reached on the
indicator diagram (point c).
 The flame velocity decreases during this stage.
 The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame
velocity and reduced flame front surface.
 No pressure rise is seen as expansion stroke starts before
this stage.
17
Stages of combustion in SI engines

18
Flame Front Propagation

 The two important factors which determine the rate of

movement of the flame front across the combustion
chamber are:
1. Reaction rate
2. Transposition rate
 The reaction rate is the result of a purely chemical
combination process in which the flame eats its way into the
unburnt charge.

19
Flame Front Propagation

20
Flame Front Propagation

 The transposition rate is due to the physical movement of

the flame front relative to the cylinder wall and is also the
result of the pressure differential between the burning gases
and the unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.

 The fig. 12.3 shows the rate of flame propagation. In area I

(A--B), the flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a
low transposition rate and low turbulence.

21
Flame Front Propagation

 As the flame leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into

more turbulent areas (area II) where it consumes a greater
mass of mixture, it progresses more rapidly and at a
constant rate (B--C).
 The volume of unburned charge is very much less towards
the end of flame travel and so the transposition rate again
becomes negligible thereby reducing the flame speed.
 The reaction rate is also reduced again since the flame is
entering a zone (area III) of relatively low turbulence (C--D).
22
Factors affecting the Flame Speed

1. Turbulence
2. Fuel-Air Ratio
3. Temperature and Pressure
4. Compression Ratio
5. Engine Speed
6. Engine Size

23
 Factors affecting the Flame Speed

1. Turbulence
 The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures
and increases with increasing turbulence.
2. Fuel-Air Ratio
 The air-fuel ratio has a very significant influence on the
flame speed. The highest flame velocities are obtained
with somewhat richer mixture (point A) as shown in fig.
12.4.
24
Factors affecting the Flame Speed

25
 Factors affecting the Flame Speed
3. Temperature and Pressure
 Flame speed increases with increase in intake
temperature and pressure.
4. Compression Ratio
 The engines having high compression rations have
higher flame speeds.
5. Engine Speed
 The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine
speed since the increase in engine speed increases the
turbulence in the cylinder.
26
 Factors affecting the Flame Speed

6. Engine Size
 Engine size does not have much effect on the rate of
flame propagation.
 Large engines are designed to operate at low speeds as
time required for complete combustion is more here
because flame has to travel a larger distance.

27
 The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines

 In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark

travels across the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform
manner.

 Under certain operating conditions, the combustion deviates

from its normal course leading to loss of performance and
possible damage to the engine.

 This type of combustion may be termed as abnormal

combustion (or) knocking combustion. Consequences are:
28
 The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines

1. Loss of power
2. Recurring preignition
3. Mechanical damage to the engine

29
 The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines

 In a SI engine combustion is initiated between the spark

plug electrodes and then spreads across the combustible
mixture.
 A definite flame front which separates the fresh mixture from
the products of combustion travels from the spark plug to
the other end of the combustion chamber.
 Heat release due to combustion increases the temperature
and pressure of the burned part of the mixture above those
of the unburned mixture.
30
 The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines

 In order to effect pressure equalization, the burned part of

the mixture will expand and compress the unburned part
adiabatically, thereby, increasing the pressure and
temperature of unburned part further.
 If the temperature of unburned mixture exceeds the self-
ignition temperature of the fuel and remains at or above this
temperature during the ignition lag, spontaneous ignition (or
auto-ignition) occurs at various pin-point locations outside
the combustion envelope. This phenomenon is called
knocking. 31
The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines

32
The phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines

33
Combustion Chambers for SI
Engines

34
Introduction

 Combustion chamber is the space enclosed between the piston

head and cylinder head when the piston is at top dead center
position.
 The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an
important influence on the engine performance and its
knocking tendencies.
 It has resulted in the raising of the compression ratio from 4
before the first world war period to 11 in the present times
with special combustion chamber designs and suitable
antiknock fuels. 35
Introduction

 The design involves the shape of the combustion chamber,

the location of spark plug and the location of inlet and
exhaust valves.
 Combustion chambers must be designed carefully keeping
in mind the following general objectives:

1. Smooth Engine Operation

2. High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency

36
Smooth Engine Operation
 Moderate rate of pressure rise
 Reducing the possibility of knocking
1) Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating
the spark plug and also, by avoiding pockets of stagnant charge.
2) Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug area and of the exhaust
valve area.
3) Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge,
through the application of a high surface-to-volume ratio in that
part where the last portion of charge burns. Heat transfer to
combustion chamber walls can be increased by using high
surface to volume ratio, thereby reducing the temperature.

37
38
High Power Output and Thermal
Efficiency
 High degree of turbulence
 High volumetric efficiency (more charge)
 Any design of combustion chamber that
improves its antiknock characteristics permits
higher compression ratio
 A compact design of combustion chamber can
reduce heat losses and increases the thermal
efficiency

39
Basic Hemi Engine Design

40
Classification of Combustion Chambers

 Depending upon the location of the spark plug, valves,

and type of cylinder head, the combustion chambers in
SI engines are of the following shapes:
1. I-shape
2. L-shape
3. T-shape
4. F-shape

41
Classification of Combustion Chambers

42
 Classification of Combustion Chambers

 T-Head Type: Early stage of engine----large distance across the combustion

chamber---knocking tendency is high---require two camshaft not
recommended

 L-Head Type: Modified version of T---valves at same side---one camshaft is

required---12.8b have two 90 degree turn results loss of velocity head----loss
in turbulence so slow combustion---Recordo’s turbulent head design 12.8c---
fast flame speed with reduced knock—additional turbulence with
concentrated combustion chamber over the valves.

 I Head Type: overhead valve combustion chamber--- both valve located at

the cylinder head---the overhead valve engine is superior to side valve at high
compression ratio. 43
Classification of Combustion Chambers

Important characteristics of I head:

i) Less surface-to-volume ratio and therefore less heat loss

ii) Less flame travel length, hence less knock

iii) Higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves.

 F-Head Type: It is a compromise between I and L
heads---The main disadvantage is that it requires two
camshafts.

44
Combustion in CI Engine

45
Introduction
 Combustion in SI engine is quite different from that of a CI
engine.
 Combustion in SI engine is essentially a flame front moving
through a homogeneous mixture while in CI engine it is an
unsteady process occurring simultaneously in many spots in a
very non-homogeneous mixture controlled by the fuel
injection.
 Air intake into the cylinder is not throttled, thus engine torque
and power output are controlled by the amount of fuel injected
per cycle.
46
Introduction

 Only air is compressed in the cylinder during compression

stroke and a much higher compression ratio (12-24) are used in
CI engines.
 In addition to air swirl and turbulence of the air, a high injection
velocity is needed to spread the fuel throughout the cylinder and
cause it to mix with the air.
 Fuel is injected into the cylinders late in the compression strokes
by one or more injectors located in each cylinder. Injection time
is usually about 20º of crankshaft rotation (15º bTDC and 5º
aTDC).
47
Introduction

48
 In SI, Turbulence is disorderly air motion with no general
direction of motion. However, in CI engines, a swirl is
required, and it also helps in breaking up of the fuel jet.
 SI engine ignition occurs at one point with a slow pressure
rise, but in CI, ignition occurs at multiple points with a rapid
rise in pressure.
 In the CI engine, there is no definite flame front.
 Air fuel ratio- at stoichiometric in SI but in CI engine
constant air supply irrespective of load and speed. The
quantity of fuel varies with the load. 18:1 (full load) to 80:1
(no load).
 Excess air 15 to 40%.
49
Effect of A/F Ratio on Power Output in CI Engine

50
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:

1. Ignition Delay Period
2. Period of Rapid Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
4. Period of After-Burning

51
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

1. Ignition Delay Period

2. Period of Rapid
Combustion
3. Period of Controlled
Combustion
4. Period of After-
Burning

52
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

53
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine
The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:
1. Ignition Delay Period:
 Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke.
 The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into
the combustion chamber.
 The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high-temperature high-
pressure air.

54
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

2. Period of Rapid Combustion

 It is also called the period of uncontrolled combustion.
 The commencement of the combustion process at the end of
the delay period marks the beginning of the uncontrolled
combustion.
 It leads to rapid pressure rise and sustains until peak pressure
is achieved.

55
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine
 The flame generated spreads throughout the chamber and
ignites the fuel in the chamber.
 The rate of heat release is maximum during this period.
Hence pressure and temperature rises to a peak value.
 The pressure rise depends upon the delay period i.e. Longer
the delay, the more rapid and higher is the pressure.

56
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine
3. Period of Controlled Combustion

 It occurs after the peak pressure is achieved.

 The already established temperature and pressure thereby
results into almost instantaneous vaporization and burning of
the remaining fuel that is then injected into the chamber.
 It depends upon the rate and timing of fuel injection.
 It is assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature.

57
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

4. Period of After-Burning
 A small portion of fuel remain unburnt, as they fail to form a
combustible mixture during the above stages.
 Those least volatile fuel molecules undergo combustion
during this phase.
 The rate of after-burning depends on the velocity of diffusion
and turbulent mixing of unburnt and partially burnt fuel with
the air.
58
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

 Reasons include incomplete fuel atomization, poor injection

penetration, improper fuel grade, improper injection timing,
or lack of sufficient air supply.
 The duration of the after-burning phase may correspond to
70-80 degrees of crank travel from TDC.

59
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

60
Ignition Delay Period

 The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the
combustion chamber.
 There is a definite period of inactivity between the time when
the first droplet of fuel hits the hot air in the combustion
chamber and the time it starts through the actual burning phase.
 This period is known as the ignition delay period. It can be
divided into two parts:
I. Physical delay
II. Chemical delay
61
Ignition Delay Period

1. Physical Delay:
 The physical delay is the time between the beginning of
injection and the attainment of chemical reaction
conditions.
 During this period, the fuel atomization, evaporation and
mixing of fuel vapour with cylinder air takes place raising
its temperature to its self ignition temperature.
 It depends upon the type of fuel.

62
Ignition Delay Period

1. Physical Delay:
 Good atomization requires high fuel-injection pressure, small
injector hole diameter, optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder
pressure.
 Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet
diameter, velocity, fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of the
air.
 It is greatly reduced by using high injection pressures, higher
combustion chamber temperatures and high turbulence to
facilitate breakup of the jet and improving evaporation.
63
Ignition Delay Period

2. Chemical Delay:
 During the chemical delay, reactions start slowly and then
accelerate until inflammation or ignition takes place.
 Generally, chemical delay is larger than the physical delay.
 It depends upon the surrounding temperatures and at high
temperatures, the chemical reactions are faster and the physical
delay becomes longer than the chemical delay.
 The ignition lag in SI engine is essentially equivalent to the
chemical delay for the CI engine.
64
Factors affecting the Delay Period

Many design and operating factors affect the delay period. The
important ones are:

 Compression Ratio: Increase in CR increases the temperature of

air. Auto-ignition temperature decreases with increased density.
Both these reduce the delay period(DP)

65
 Engine Power Output: With an Increase in engine power, the
operating temperature increases. A/F ratio decreases and DP
decrease. 66
Factors affecting the Delay Period

 Engine Speed: DP decreases with increasing engine speed as the

temperature and pressure of compressed air rises at high engine
speeds.

67
 Injection Timing: The temperature and pressure of air at the
beginning of injection are lower for higher injection advance.
The DP increases with increase in injection advance or longer
68
injection timing. The optimum angle of injection is 20° BTDC.
Factors affecting the Delay Period

 Atomization of fuel: Higher fuel injection pressures increase the

degree of atomization. The fineness of atomization reduces the DP
due to higher surface volume ratio.

 Injection Pressure: Increase in injection pressure reduces the auto

ignition temperature and hence decreases DP.

 Fuel Properties: Low self ignition temperature reduces DP. Other

fuel properties which affect DP are volatility, surface tension,
latent heat and viscosity.
69
Factors affecting the Delay Period

 Intake Temperature: High intake temperature increase the air

temperature after compression which reduces DP.

 Engine Size: Large engines operate at lower speeds, thus

increasing the DP in terms of crank angle.

 Cetane No.: Fuels with high cetane no. have lower DP.

 F/A ratio: With increasing F/A ratio, operating temperature

increases and thus DP decreases.

70
Factors affecting the Delay Period

 Combustion Chamber Shape: Engines with precombustion

chambers will have low DP.

 Injection Duration: Increase in injection duration results in higher

quantity of fuel injected which reduces DP.

71
The phenomenon of Knock in CI Engine

Abnormal Combustion or Knocking

 Tt is seen that the complete combustion in CI engines may
be comprising of four distinct phases i.e. ‘ignition delay’
followed by‘ uncontrolled combustion,’ ‘controlled
combustion’ and ‘after burning’.
 Combustion generally becomes abnormal combustion in CI
engines when the ignition delay is too large resulting into
large uncontrolled combustion and zig-zag pressure rise.

72
The phenomenon of Knock in CI Engine

 Abnormal combustion in CI engines may also be termed as

‘knocking’ in engines and can be felt by excessive
vibrations, excessive noise, excessive heat release, pitting
of cylinder head and piston head etc.
 In order to control the knocking, some additives are put in CI
engine fuel so as to reduce its’ self ignition temperature and
accelerate ignition process.
 Also, the combustion chambers are properly designed so as
to have reduced physical and chemical delay.
73
Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines

Parameter SI Engines CI Engines

Occurs at the end of Occurs at the beginning of

Timing
combustion combustion

Auto ignition of end Ignition of accumulated

Major Cause
charge fresh charge

Not possible as only air is

Possible as the fuel air
Pre-Ignition compressed
mixture is compressed

74
Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines

75
Combustion Chambers for CI Engine

76
Introduction

 The most important function of the CI engine combustion

chamber is to provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short
time.
 In order to achieve this, an organized movement of air called
air swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between
the fuel droplets and the air.
 Since air swirl or turbulence are necessary for better mixing
which can be controlled by combustion chamber.

77
Introduction

 This makes it necessary to study combustion chamber

design in detail.
 CI engine combustion chambers are classified into two
categories:
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type
2. Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type

78
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type

 Also called an open combustion chamber in which the

combustion space is essentially a single cavity with little
restriction from one part of the chamber to the other.
 Therefore, no large difference in pressure between parts of
the chamber during the combustion process is seen.
 The fuel is injected directly in this space.
 The injector nozzles used for this type are generally of
multihole type working at relatively high pressure (about 200
bar).
79
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type
 The main advantages of this chamber are:
I. Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower
surface area to volume ratio and hence better efficiency.
II. No cold starting problems.
III. Fine atomization because of multihole nozzle.
 Major drawbacks of this chamber are:
I. High fuel injection pressure required and hence complex
design of fuel injection pump.
II. Necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection
system, particularly for small engines.
80
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type
 Direct-injection (DI) type are classified further into:
I. Shallow depth chamber
II. Hemispherical chamber
III. Cylindrical chamber
IV. Toroidal chamber

81
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type

82
I. Shallow Depth Chamber

 In this chamber, the depth of the cavity provided in the

piston is quite small.
 This is usually adopted for large engines running at low
speed.
 Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is
negligible.

83
II. Hemispherical Chamber

 This chamber also gives small squish.

 However, the depth to diameter ratio can be varied to give
any desired squish to give better performance.

84
1. Direct-Injection (DI) Type

85
III.Cylindrical Chamber

 This design was attempted in recent diesel engines.

 This is modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form
of a truncated cone with base angle of 30º.
 The swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly
180º of circumference.
 Squish can also be varied by varying the depth .

86
IV.Toroidal Chamber

 The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish

along with the air movement, similar to that of the familiar
smoke ring, within the toroidal chamber.
 Due to powerful squish, there is better utilization of
oxygen.
 The cone angle of spray for this type of chamber is 150º to
160º.

87
2. Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type

 The chamber is divided into two or more distinct

compartment connected by restricted passages which
creates pressure differences between them during
combustion process.
 The main advantages of this type are:
I. Injection pressure required is low
II. Direction of spraying is not very important.

88
2. Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type

 The major drawbacks of this type which have made it application

limited are:
I. Poor cold starting performance requiring heater plugs.
II. Specific fuel consumption is high because of loss of
pressure due to air motion through the duct and heat loss
due to large heat transfer area.
 These chambers are classified further into:
I. Swirl chamber
II. Precombustion chamber
III. Air cell chamber
89
 1. Swirl Chamber
 It consists of a spherical-shaped
chamber separated from the engine
cylinder and located in the cylinder
head as shown in fig 12.20.
 In the swirl combustion chamber
(also known as turbulence
combustion chamber) the air is
given a swirl while coming in the
cylinder.

90
1. Swirl Chamber
 The fuel is injected in the swirled air so that mixing and burning
of the fuel takes place completely.
 This chamber finds application where:
 Fuel quality is difficult to control.
 Reliability under adverse condition is more important than
fuel economy.
 The use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel spray
nozzle is often important consideration for swirl chamber
engine.
91
 2. Precombustion Chamber
 In this chamber, there are two
combustion chambers-one is
auxiliary combustion chamber
and the other is main
combustion chamber.
 The auxiliary combustion
chamber is connected to the
main combustion chamber
through a number of small holes
or orifices.
92
 2. Precombustion Chamber
 The auxiliary combustion chamber is smaller in size than the main
combustion chamber and is called pre-combustion chamber.
 Fuel is injected into the pre-combustion chamber where it partly
burns.
 This partly burnt fuel goes through a small orifice at a very high
velocity in the main combustion chamber, where the complete
combustion takes place.
 The turbulence created in the combustion chamber helps to ignite
the fuel completely.

93
2. Precombustion Chamber
 The rate of pressure rise and maximum pressure is lower
compared to those of open chamber.
 It has multi-fuel capability without any modification in the
injection system because of the temperature of the
precombustion chamber.

94
 3. Air-Cell Chamber
 In this chamber, clearance
volume is divided into two
parts, one in the main cylinder
and the other called the energy
cell.
 The energy cell is further
divided into two parts, major
and minor, which are
separated from each other and
from the main chamber by
narrow orifices.
95
3. Air-Cell Chamber
 A pintle type of nozzle injects the fuel across the main combustion
chamber space towards the open neck of the air cell.
 The high velocity jet coming out of the air cell produces swirl
motion or turbulence in the main chamber and hence thoroughly
mixes the fuel with air resulting in the complete combustion.
 The design is not suitable for variable speed operation as the
combustion induced swirl has no relation with the speed of the
engine.

96
 Combustion in CI Engine

Direct Injection Direct Injection Direct Injection Indirect injection

quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chamber
97
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber
References

 Internal Combustion engine fundamentals by John B. Heywood

 Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal combustion Engine by

Willard W. Pulkrabek

 Internal Combustion Engine by V. Ganesan

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HapIGjHkBHU&hd=1

 Squish" is an effect in internal combustion engines which creates

sudden turbulence of the fuel/air mixture as the piston approaches
top dead centre (TDC).

98
Thank You

99
Stages of Combustion in CI Engine

100