2.2.1 Mechanics - Statics - A B2 B3 - Issue 02

Licence Category A, B2 and B3
Physics
Module 2.2.1
Certification Statement and Objectives
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I,
its amendment, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:
Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Objective
Ref. A B1 B2 B3
Mechanics 2.2
Statics 2.2.1 1 2 1 1
Forces, moments and
couples, representation
as vectors;
Centre of gravity;
Elements of theory of
stress, strain and
elasticity: tension,
compression, shear and
torsion;
Nature and properties
of solid, fluid and
gas;
Pressure and buoyancy
in liquids (barometers);
Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-2 Issue 02 – Revision 00

© Copyright 2021 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY May 2021
Module 2.2.1
“THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK”

Module 2.2.1
Table of Contents
Mass, force and weight

6 Moments, couples and torque
10 Centre of gravity (centre of mass)
16 Vectors
20 Stress, strain and elasticity
28 Secondary stresses – shear, torsion and bending
32 Nature and properties of solids, liquids and gas
36 Pressure
40
Barometers
46 Pressure and force (hydrostatics)
50 Fluid pressure and depth
54 Buoyancy in liquids
56

Module 2.2.1

Module 2.2.1
2.2.1 Statics
Mass, force and weight
Mass Force
Mass (symbolized ‘m’) is a dimensionless quantity The physicist uses the word ‘force’ to describe any push or
representing the amount of matter in a particle or object. The pull. A force is one kind of vector. A vector is a quantity that
standard unit of mass in the International System (SI) is the has both size and direction.
kilogram (kg), and the slug in the imperial system.
A force has a certain magnitude or size. Also, a force is
1 slug = 14.59 kilogram always in a certain direction. To completely describe a force, it
is necessary to specify both the size of the push or pull and its
In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is a direction.
measure of an object’s resistance to acceleration (a change in
its state of motion) when a force is applied. It also determines The units in which force are measured are the pound (lb) in
the strength of its mutual gravitational attraction to other the imperial system and the newton (N) in the metric system.
bodies. The newton is named after Sir Isaac Newton, a famous British
physicist who lived in the 17th century.
The relationship between the metric and imperial units is given

by the conversion factor:
1 lb = 4.448 N
Weight
A weight is one kind of force. It is defined as the gravitational
pull of the earth on a given body. The direction of this force is
toward the geometrical centre of the earth.

Module 2.2.1
Mass conversions
Mass and weight clarification | Centripetal force

and gravitation | Physics | Khan Academy
https://youtu.be/IuBoeDihLUc

Module 2.2.1
Distinction between mass and weight
The physicist very carefully distinguishes between ‘mass’ and There is a great source of confusion in British marketing
‘weight’. As we have seen, mass is the quantity of matter, practices. For example, we often see on a packet of sugar the
determined by the number of protons and neutrons in the information regarding the contents:
body, and weight is a measure of the gravitational pull of the
earth on this quantity of matter. 1 kg or 2.2 lbs
It may seem that this is an unimportant distinction. However, We note that 2.2 lbs equals 1 kg. We have just learned that
there is one important difference. 2.2 lbs is the ‘weight’ of the sugar and that 1 kg is the ‘mass’ of
the sugar. In other words, British packaging practices list the
The mass of an object is the same wherever this object is in weight of the product if we deal with the imperial system and
the universe. The mass of a stone is the same if the stone is list the mass of the product if we are in the metric system.
on the earth, on Mars, in a space ship, or some place in the
Milky Way Galaxy. If the stone is not on the earth but is in a
space station orbiting the earth some distance from the
earth’s surface, the weight of this stone is different from its
weight on the earth’s surface. If the stone is on the planet
Mars, we speak of its ‘weight on Mars’, the gravitational pull
of Mars on the stone.
Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies in slugs

or kilograms and weights in pounds or Newtons. The equation
relating mass and weight is:
w = mg
This is a form of Newton’s second law (F = ma).
In this equation, g has a definite numerical value. We will use

the following relations:

Module 2.2.1
45 lb = 20.4 kg x 2.2
A 100 kg man on the moon
A 100 kg man on Earth

Mass depends upon the amount of matter.
Weight depends upon the mass and the amount of gravity
Weighing scales
indicating in lb and kg

Module 2.2.1
Moments, couples and torque
Lever arms and moments

The distance of any object from the fulcrum is called the ‘lever What would the moment (M2) be if the spanner was 3 times
arm’. The lever arm multiplied by the weight (or mass) of the longer?
object is its turning effect about the fulcrum. This turning effect
is known as the ‘moment’. Moment = Fd
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force = 10 x 300
and the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of
= 3,000 Nm
action of the force.
Moment = Fd
Where;
F = the force in newtons (N) or pounds (lb)
d = perpendicular distance in metres (m) or feet (ft)
Moments are expressed in lbs.ft or Newton metres and the

direction must be specified, clockwise (+) or anticlockwise (-),
positive or negative.
Example 1
A 10 N force acts on a spanner, at a perpendicular distance of

100 mm from the centre of the nut and bolt. What is the
moment M1 applied to the nut and bolt?
Moment = Fd
= 10 x 100
= 1,000 Nm

Module 2.2.1
Moment = Force x distance
M = Fd
Example 1
Moment = Force x distance

Module 2.2.1
Couples
A ‘couple’ is a pair of forces of magnitude F that are equal and
opposite but applied at points separated by a distance d
perpendicular to the forces. The combined moment of the
forces produces a torque Fd on the object on which they act.
An example is the cutting of an internal thread with a tap and

tap wrench. The force applied at one end of the wrench
handle, multiplied by the distance to the centre of rotation is
just half of the torque felt at the tap itself, since there is an
equal torque applied at the other wrench handle.
The moment (or torque) of a couple is calculated by

multiplying the size of one of the force (F) by the
perpendicular distance between the two forces (d).
E.g. a steering wheel in a car;
Moment of Couple = Fd

Module 2.2.1
A couple’ is a pair of forces of magnitude F that are

equal and opposite but applied at points separated Couple = tangential force applied by just one hand
by a distance d perpendicular to the forces. The multiplied by the distance between the hands
combined moment of the forces produces a torque
Fd on the object on which they act.

Module 2.2.1
Torque wrenches
Consider the diagrams in the figure shown below. We define
torque as the force (F) applied to a body that is pivoted at a
point (0) multiplied by the distance from the pivot point to the
place where the force is applied and multiplied by the sin of
the angle between r and F.
We will use the Greek letter tau () for torque. The distance
mentioned in the preceding sentence is called the lever arm
and symbolized by the letter d.
The defining equation is:
 = Fd
However, it must be remembered that in those cases where 

is not 90°, the full equation must be used. Note also that the
unit for torque is the lb ft, lb in or the Nm.

Module 2.2.1
Torque = Force x distance

Module 2.2.1
Centre of gravity (centre of mass)
Centre of mass of regular and irregular shapes (centroids) Finding the centre of mass for symmetrical objects
In many applications, it is important that objects are designed The centre of mass for a symmetrical object can be found
with stability in mind. This requires an understanding of the easily. The axes of symmetry are marked on the object. The
centre of mass, as well as an ability to find out where it is. By centre of mass is where the axes of symmetry cross.
incorporating a low centre of mass and wide base into an
object, we can reduce the chance of it toppling over. Finding the centre of mass by suspending objects
The centre of mass for an irregular shaped, non-symmetrical
Mass is the amount of matter an object has. Every part of an object is found in a different way.
object forms part of its overall mass. But when we try to
balance an object on a point, there will only be one place 1. Drill a small hole in the object and hang it up so that it is
where it will balance. free to swing without obstruction.
You can therefore think of the mass of an object being 2. Hang a plumb line (a piece of string with a weight hanging
concentrated at this point, known as the centre of mass, or from it) from the same suspension point. This lets you
‘centroid’. mark the vertical line directly below the suspension point.
3. Drill another hole at a different location within the object.
4. Again, hang a plumb line to determine the vertical and

mark it on.
5. The point at which the two marked lines cross is the

centre of mass.
Center of mass | Impacts and linear momentum | Physics

| Khan Academy
https://youtu.be/VrflZifKIuw
Centre Of Gravity
https://youtu.be/R8wKV0UQtlo

Module 2.2.1
Finding the centroid of regular shapes
Finding the centroid of irregular shapes

Module 2.2.1
Aircraft centre of gravity
An aircraft is balanced if it remains level when suspended from
an imaginary point (see diagram below). This point is the
location of its ideal CG.
The CG of an aeroplane or helicopter is the location where all

the mass of the aircraft is considered to act.
Balancing
Aircraft balance refers to the location of the centre of gravity
along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The Centre of Gravity
(CG) is the point about which an aircraft would balance if it
were possible to suspend it from that point. On weight and
balance drawings the location of the CG is usually denoted
the symbol shown below.
Obtaining this balance is simply a matter of placing loads so

that the average arm of the loaded aircraft falls within the
C of G range. The exact location of the range is specified for
each type of aircraft in the flight manual.
Centre of gravity limits

Centre of gravity (CG) limits are specified longitudinal (forward
and aft) and/or lateral (left and right) limits within which the
aircraft’s centre of gravity must be located during flight. The
CG limits are indicated in the aeroplane flight manual. The
area between the limits is called the CG range of the aircraft.
If, due to incorrect loading of an aircraft, the aircraft’s CG is

located outside of the designated limits, the aircraft will be
difficult to control, or suffer increased fuel consumption, or
both.

Module 2.2.1
If an aircraft is
suspended from its
centre of gravity
position, it will balance
Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point at which all the

mass of the aircraft can be considered to act
Graphical symbol for

centre of gravity
position

Module 2.2.1
Vectors
A study of physics will involve the introduction of a variety of
quantities that are used to describe the physical world.
Examples of such quantities include distance, displacement,
speed, velocity, acceleration, force, mass, momentum, energy,
work, power, etc. All these quantities can by divided into two
categories - vectors and scalars.
A vector quantity is a quantity that is fully described by both

magnitude and direction. On the other hand, a scalar quantity
is a quantity that is fully described by its magnitude alone.
Examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity,

acceleration, and force. Each of these quantities are unique in
that a full description of the quantity demands that both a
magnitude and a direction are quoted. Vector quantities are
not fully described unless both magnitude and direction are
listed.
Representing vectors
Vector quantities are often represented by scaled vector
diagrams. Vector diagrams depict a vector by use of an arrow
drawn to scale in a specific direction. An example of a scaled
vector diagram is shown in the diagram at the right. The vector
diagram depicts a displacement vector. Observe that there
are several characteristics of this diagram that make it an
appropriately drawn vector diagram.
 a scale is clearly provided
 a vector arrow (with arrowhead) is drawn in a specified
direction. The vector arrow has a head and a tail.
 the magnitude and direction of the vector is clearly
labelled. In this case, the diagram shows the magnitude
is 20 m and the direction is 30 degrees west of north.

Module 2.2.1
Two illustrations of the second convention (discussed above)
for identifying the direction of a vector are shown below.
A vector
Conventions for
describing directions of
vectors in quadrants

Module 2.2.1
Observe in the first example that the vector is said to have a The magnitude of a vector is represented by the length of the
direction of 40 degrees. You can think of this direction as arrow. A scale is indicated (such as, 1 cm = 5 miles) and the
follows: suppose a vector pointing east had its tail pinned arrow is drawn the proper length according to the chosen
down and then the vector was rotated an angle of 40 degrees scale. The arrow points in the precise direction. Directions are
in the counter-clockwise direction. described using some convention. The most common
convention is that the direction of a vector is the counter-
Observe in the second example that the vector is said to have clockwise angle of rotation which that vector makes with
a direction of 240 degrees. This means that the tail of the respect to due east.
vector was pinned down and the vector was rotated an
angle of 240 degrees in the counter-clockwise direction Vector addition
beginning from due east. A rotation of 240 degrees is A variety of mathematical operations can be performed with
equivalent to rotating the vector through two quadrants (180 and upon vectors. One such operation is the addition of
degrees) and then an additional 60 degrees into the third vectors. Two vectors can be added together to determine the
quadrant. result (or resultant). Observe the summations below, of two
force vectors.
Representing the magnitude of a vector
The magnitude of a vector in a scaled vector diagram is The rules for summing vectors are applied to free-body
depicted by the length of the arrow. The arrow is drawn a diagrams in order to determine the net force (i.e., the vector
precise length in accordance with a chosen scale. For sum of all the individual forces).
example, the diagram at the right shows a vector with a
magnitude of 20 miles. Since the scale used for constructing Intro to vectors & scalars | One-dimensional motion | Physics
the diagram is 1 cm = 5 miles, the vector arrow is drawn with | Khan Academy
a length of 4 cm. That is, 4 cm x (5 miles/1 cm) = 20 miles. https://youtu.be/ihNZlp7iUHE
Using the same scale (1 cm = 5 miles), a displacement vector

that is 15 miles will be represented by a vector arrow that is
3 cm in length. Similarly, a 25-mile displacement vector is
represented by a 5-cm long vector arrow. And finally, an 18-
mile displacement vector is represented by a 3.6-cm long
arrow. See the examples shown below.
In conclusion, vectors can be represented by use of a scaled

vector diagram. On such a diagram, a vector arrow is drawn to
represent the vector. The arrow has an obvious tail and
arrowhead.
Module 2.2.1
A vector drawn to Three vectors drawn to scale
Free body diagrams

Free body diagrams – adding and subtracting vectors

Module 2.2.1
Vector components Angled vectors have two components
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. If a dog’s chain is stretched upward and rightward and pulled
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force are examples tight by his master, then the tension force in the chain has two
of the vector quantities components - an upward component and a rightward
component. To the dog, the influence of the chain on his body
In situations in which vectors are directed at angles to the is equivalent to the influence of two chains on his body - one
customary coordinate axes, a useful mathematical trick will be pulling upward and the other pulling rightward. If the single
employed to transform the vector into two parts with each part chain were replaced by two chains. with each chain having the
being directed along the coordinate axes. magnitude and direction of the components, then the dog
would not know the difference. This is not because the dog is
For example, a vector that is directed northwest can be dumb, but rather because the combined influence of the two
thought of as having two parts - a northward part and a components is equivalent to the influence of the single two-
westward part. A vector that is directed upward and rightward dimensional vector.
can be thought of as having two parts - an upward part and a
rightward part.
Any vector directed in two dimensions can be thought of as

having an influence in two different directions. That is, it can
be thought of as having two parts. Each part of a two-
dimensional vector is known as a component. The
components of a vector depict the influence of that vector in a
given direction. The combined influence of the two
components is equivalent to the influence of the single two-
dimensional vector. The single two- dimensional vector could
be replaced by the two components.

Module 2.2.1

Module 2.2.1
Consider an aeroplane that is flying from London Heathrow
Airport to Glasgow. Suppose that the aeroplane is flying in
such a manner that its resulting displacement vector is
northwest. If this is the case, then the displacement of the
aeroplane has two components - a component in the
northward direction and a component in the westward
direction.
This is to say that the aeroplane would have the same

displacement if it were to take the trip to Glasgow in two
segments - one directed due north and the other directed due
west. If the single displacement vector were replaced by these
two individual displacement vectors, then the passengers in
the aeroplane would end up in the same final position. The
combined influence of the two components is equivalent to the
influence of the single two-dimensional displacement.
Any vector directed in two dimensions can be thought of as

having two different components. The component of a single
vector describes the influence of that vector in a given
direction. This is called vector resolution.

Module 2.2.1
An aeroplane journey from London Heathrow

Airport to Glasgow can be resolved into a
northward component and a westward
component

Module 2.2.1
Stress, strain and elasticity
The structure (or ‘airframe’) of an aircraft or helicopter is Most parts of an aircraft cannot be simply classified as a strut,
designed to carry the loads imposed by the forces of lift, a tie or a beam because the loads applied to them can change
thrust, drag and weight in an efficiently aerodynamic way direction depending on whether the aircraft is in flight or on
which still permits a commercially viable payload. the ground. A typical example is the lift strut of a high-wing
light aircraft. It is in fact a strut only when the aircraft is on the
Any structure can be divided into individual elements which, ground and it is supporting the weight of the wing. During a
when loaded, will behave in a certain way in a known heavy landing, the compressive loads on the strut are
direction. Generally, a simple structure is made up of three increased considerably. In flight, it is no longer a strut but acts
types of member, i.e. beams, struts and ties. A member as a tie since the lift developed by the wing has reversed the
subject to bending is known as a beam, one being subject to loads.
compression as a strut and one being subject to tension as a
tie. The spar of a helicopter rotor blade will be in tension at the
upper surface and in compression at the lower surface with
The load applied to a member is the force in pounds, the aircraft on the ground and the rotor stationary. In flight, the
kilograms or newton’s, but the most important factor from the situation is reversed with the upper surface experiencing the
point of view of the strength of a member is not the load it has compressive stress. Each part of the aircraft can be treated in
to carry but the relationship between the load and the cross- the same way for the different conditions of operation and an
sectional area of the member. This is called the ‘stress’ in the appreciation gained as to the direction of the loads applied.
member and is measured in pounds per square inch, newtons Such knowledge is useful when inspecting for possible
per square metre or some other suitable units. damages. In addition to the loads imposed by lift and weight
there are also loads imposed by thrust and drag and, on the
When a load is applied to a member in a framework it will, to ground, manoeuvres such as braking and turning.
some extent, move under the load. For example, a tie will
stretch under load. The vertical movement of the wing tips of a Prior to designing an effective repair to a damaged sheet
large aircraft is evidence of the extension and compression of metal aircraft, the stresses that act on the structure must have
the upper and lower surfaces. This movement under load is been identified. There are only five types of stress, among
called ‘strain’. which two are primary ones.
The other three types can, for practical purposes, be

expressed in terms of the first two.

Module 2.2.1
External struts and ties on a biplane

Module 2.2.1
Primary stresses – tension, compression and shear
The two basic structural stresses to which aircraft are subject
are:
 tension
 compression.
Tension – tension is a primary stress that tries to pull a body

apart. When a weight is supported by a chain, the chain is
subjected to tension or, as it is normally expressed, to a
tensile stress. The weight is attempting to pull the chain apart.
The result is a stretching effect on the airframe. Bracing wires
in an aircraft are usually in tension.
Compression – the other primary stress, tries to squeeze the

part together. A weight supported on a post exerts a force that
tries to squeeze the ends of the post together or to collapse it.
This is called ‘compressive stress’. Tension and compression
are the two basic stresses and the other three, bending,
torsion and shear, are really just different arrangements of
tension and compression working on a body at the same
time.

Module 2.2.1

Module 2.2.1
Secondary stresses – shear, torsion and bending
Shear – shear forces try to slide a body apart and if a rivet or An aircraft structure in flight is subjected to many and varying
bolt is examined that has failed because of shear forces, it will stresses due to the varying loads that may be imposed. The
be recognized that the shank has actually been pulled apart, designer’s problem is trying to anticipate the possible stresses
not along its length, but across its shank. Rivets hold pieces of that the structure will have to endure, and to build it sufficiently
the aircraft’s skin together and in a properly designed riveted strong to withstand these. The problem is complicated by the
joint, the rivets support shear loads only. Such a joint should fact that an aeroplane structure must be light as well as
never be required to support tensile loads. The airframe is strong.
subjected to variable torsional stresses during turns and other
manoeuvres. Internal Forces-Tension, Shear Force, Bending Moment
https://youtu.be/Z-jQyeYApU8
Torsion – torsion is a twisting force. When a structural
member is twisted, a tensile stress acts diagonally across the
member and a compressive stress acts at right angles to the
tension. The crankshaft of an aircraft engine is under a
torsional load when the engine spins the propeller.
Bending – a bending force tries to pull one side of a body

apart while at the same time squeezing the other side
together. When a weight is put on a wooden board fixed at
one end to a wall, the top of the board is under a tensile
stress while the bottom feels compression.
Wing spars of cantilever wings or the section of a wing spar

outboard of the struts is subjected to bending stresses. In
flight, the top of the spar is being compressed and the bottom
is under tension, but on the ground, the top is in tension and
the bottom is in compression.
The wing struts are under tension in flight but under

compression on the ground. There are many other areas of
the airframe structure that experience bending forces during
normal flight.

Module 2.2.1
Bending
Torsion

Module 2.2.1
Stress and strain
What is known as stress, is defined as the force perpendicular The strain is defined as the fractional change in length or:
to the cross-sectional area of the member divided by the
cross- sectional area. Or:
In the figure below, a solid rod of length L, is under simple

tension due to force F, as shown. If we divide that axial force,
F, by the cross-sectional area of the rod (A), this would be the where L0 is the original length of the member.
stress in the member.
We may write:
In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension, we see that
there will be an elongation (or deformation) due to the tension.
If we then graph the tension (force) versus the deformation,
we obtain a result as shown in the figure below. Strain has no units – since it is length divided by length,
We see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the however it is sometimes expressed as ‘in/in (or inches per
tension in the rod, the deformation increases. In the first inch)’ in some texts.
region, the deformation increases in proportion to the force. Stress, Strain, and Elasticity (Part
That is, if the amount of force is doubled, the amount of 1) https://youtu.be/ikBWIESmrxE
deformation is doubled.

Module 2.2.1
Stress
Axial force in a member of length L0 causing deformation (extension) of ΔL
Strain

Module 2.2.1
Nature and properties of solids, liquids and gas
All matter exists in one of three states – solid, liquid or gas. Liquid
Liquids and gases are both considered to be ‘fluids’ in their Much greater forces of attraction between the particles in a
behaviour. liquid compared to gases, but not quite as much as in solids.
The following notes characterize the three states: Particles moving rapidly in all directions but more frequently
colliding with each other than in gases.
Solid
The greatest forces of attraction are between the particles in a With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as
solid and they pack together in a neat and ordered they gain kinetic energy.
arrangement.
Properties of a liquid
The particles are too strongly held together to allow movement
from place to place but the particles vibrate about their  Liquids have a much greater density than gases (‘heavier’)
position in the structure. because the particles are much closer together.
 Liquids flow freely despite the forces of attraction between
With increase in temperature, the particles vibrate faster and the particles but liquids are not as ‘fluid’ as gases.
more strongly as they gain kinetic energy.  Liquids have a surface, and a fixed volume (at a particular
temperature) because of the increased particle attraction,
The properties of a solid but the shape is not fixed and is merely that of the
container itself.
 Solids have the greatest density (‘heaviest’) because the  Liquids are not readily compressed because of the lack of
particles are closest together. ‘empty’ space between the particles.
 Solids cannot flow freely like gases or liquids because the  Liquids will expand on heating (contract on cooling) but
particles are strongly held in fixed positions. nothing like as much as gases because of the greater
 Solids have a fixed surface and volume (at a particular particle attraction restricting the expansion. When heated,
temperature) because of the strong particle attraction. the liquid particles gain kinetic energy and hit the sides of
 Solids are extremely difficult to compress because there is the container more frequently, and more significantly, they
no real ‘empty’ space between the particles. hit with a greater force, so in a sealed container the
Solids will expand a little on heating but nothing like as much pressure produced can be considerable.
as liquids because of the greater particle attraction restricting
the expansion (contract on cooling). The expansion is caused
by the increased strength of particle vibration.

Module 2.2.1
Atom arrangement in a solid
Atom arrangement in a liquid
Solid, liquid and gas comparison

Module 2.2.1
Gas  The natural rapid and random movement of the particles
Almost no forces of attraction between the particles which are means that gases readily ‘spread’ or diffuse. Diffusion is
completely free of each other. fastest in gases where there is more space for them to
move and the rate of diffusion increases with increase in
Particles widely spaced and scattered at random throughout temperature.
the container so there is no order in the system.
States of Matter (solids, liquids and gases) |
Particles moving rapidly in all directions, frequently colliding The Chemistry Journey | The Fuse School
with each other and with the side of the container. https://youtu.be/bMbmQzV-Ezs
With increase in temperature, the particles move faster as
they gain kinetic energy.
Properties of a gas
 Gases have a low density (‘light’) because the particles are

so spaced out in the container (density = mass ÷ volume).
 Gases flow freely because there are no effective forces of
attraction between the particles.
 Gases have no surface, and no fixed shape or volume, and
because of lack of particle attraction, they spread out
and fill any container.
 Gases are readily compressed because of the ‘empty’
space between the particles.
 If the ‘container’ volume can change, gases readily expand
on heating because of the lack of particle attraction, and
readily contract on cooling. On heating, gas particles gain
kinetic energy and hit the sides of the container more
frequently, and more significantly, they hit with a greater
force. Depending on the container situation, either or both
of the pressure or volume will increase (reverse on
cooling).

Module 2.2.1
Solid, liquid and gas comparison
Atom arrangement in a gas

Module 2.2.1
Pressure
Definition
Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area, i.e.: The forces always act at right angles to the surface that the
pressure is exposed to. You may perhaps think that this
Force Mass x Acceleration explanation is a little pedantic, but the pressure definition is
Pressure = =
important to understand when dealing with aerodynamic
Area
forces.
Area
If the volume (holding the same number of molecules) is
reduced, the molecules act on a smaller area. Thus, the force
It can be applied to any fluid (both gases and liquids).
exerted per unit area increases, hence the volume has higher
In the atmosphere, pressure is caused by the mass air acting pressure. The opposite will occur if the volume is increased.
under the force of gravity on a given area. As all molecules act Gas Pressure: The Basics
under gravity then the pressure can also be considered to be
https://youtu.be/zvh9uv2Hxx4
the weight of a column of air on a unit area.
Air pressure
A fluid contains a certain number of molecules. These https://youtu.be/oWiOEMaMy3c
molecules are in rapid and ceaseless motion, and bombard
any surface that is immersed in the fluid.
During the collision between a molecule and the surface, the

molecule exerts a force on the surface. When added the
millions upon millions of collisions result in an evenly
distributed force on the surface.
Pressure has a magnitude but, unlike a vector, it has no

direction. In many old books one will often find the definition
that pressure acts equally in all directions. It does not.
Pressure does not act in any direction; it is the force created
as a result of pressure acting on a surface that has a
direction. The direction depends upon the orientation of the
surface.

Module 2.2.1
A pressure creates a force upon

any surface with which it is in
contact.
The Force = Pressure x Area
Pressure is caused by collisions of the molecules

of the fluid against the surfaces with which it is
contact.
For any given number of molecules, a smaller

volume creates a higher number of collisions thus
a higher pressure.
Module 2.2.1
Unit
The SI unit for pressure is newton per square metre (N/m2). If The standard pressure (or normal pressure) measured at
an area of 1 m2 is exposed to a force of 1 N the pressure is mean sea level (MSL) is 1 ATM, equivalent to 760 mm hg
1 N/m2 also known as 1 pascal (Pa). A pressure of 1 Pa is an or
extremely low pressure (1/100,000 Bar). 29.92 in hg (29.92” hg). This way of measuring is somewhat
misleading since it is a length and not a pressure. But, like it or
Although largely obsolete, the imperial system of units is still not, it is common practice to do so!
encountered, and pressure is expressed in pounds per square
inch. A pressure of 1 ATM is equal to 101,325 Pa or 1,013.25 hPa
(hectopascals) or 101.325 kPa (kilopascal). The unit
In meteorology, the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb). hectopascal (hPa) is the standard unit now applied in all
meteorological aspects, and has replaced the older
Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressure millibar (mb) unit. However, there is no numerical difference
was measured in terms of the length of a column of mercury in between mb and hPa as 1 mb = 1 hPa.
a barometer that the weight of the atmosphere could support.
When measuring the pressure in hydraulic systems and
Measuring pressure
pneumatic systems etc., the unit “bar” is frequently used in
A mass of air has weight, i.e. it is a force. The weight is the 1 bar = 100,000
European Pa. because it is a large unit.
countries,
mass of the air (kg) multiplied by the acceleration due to
gravity (9.81 m/s2) The weight of air exerted to a surface
produces a pressure. Most industries in the USA and in the commonwealth
countries still prefer the unit ‘pound per square inches’ (psi) or
Atmospheric pressure is measured by means of a barometer.
pound per square feet (PSF).
The principle of measuring air pressure is illustrated below
where a mercury barometer is shown (known as Torricelli’s No wonder that people often get confused with all these units
mercury barometer). Mercury is denoted ‘Hg’, or ‘hg’. The in frequent use. If you have to make calculations based on SI
weight of a certain air mass exerts a force on the mercury units and pressure is included, the pressure must be
surface. Depending of the magnitude of the outside pressure a converted to pascal.
quantum of mercury is either raised or lowered inside a glass
tube, which is sealed at the top (it is a perfect vacuum). The
column of mercury above the surface, either measured in
mms of mercury (mm Hg) or inches of mercury (in Hg), thus
represents the value of the local atmospheric pressure.

Module 2.2.1
Atmospheric pressure - units

N/m (Pa)
2 hPa in Hg mm Hg ATM psi (lb/in2)
1 10-2 2.95 x 104 7.5 x 103 9.87 x 10-6 1.45 x 10-4
102 1 2.95 x 10 -2 0.75 9.87 x 10-4 1.45 x 10-2
3.39 x 103 33.9 1 25.4 3.34 x 10-2 0.49
1.33 x 102 1.33 3.94 x 10 -2 1 1.32 x 103 1.93 x 10-2
101,325 1,013.25 29.92 760 1 14.7 Standard sea
6.89 x 103 68.9 2.04 51.7 6.8 x 10-2 1 level pressures

Module 2.2.1
Absolute pressure and gauge (relative) pressure
The barometer pressure readout, for a given pressure, Thus, the absolute pressure inside the cylinder is 11 ATM
depends on how the barometer is designed. The atmospheric (assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 1 ATM).
pressure is also called the ambient pressure (meaning
“surrounding” pressure). The barometer measured pressure is We could also say that the differential pressure is 10 ATM. If
an absolute pressure reading. The atmospheric pressure is the ambient pressure is lowered the differential pressure
perhaps 1 ATM and may be higher or lower than that, but can increases. If the gauge reads -0.5 ATM at the equal ambient
never be lower than 0 ATM. Hence an absolute pressure conditions, the absolute pressure inside the cylinder is 0.5
reading can never be less than zero. ATM
- a partial vacuum relative to the ambient.
If the pressure inside an air-tank is measured, with the
ambient pressure as the zero reference, it is called a Gauge This can be appreciated when trying to measure the pressure
(or relative) measurement. The pressure inside the tank can inside a flat tyre on a car using a standard tyre pressure
either be larger or lower than the ambient reference pressure. gauge. Of course, it will indicate 0 psi, because the standard
A higher pressure is positive whereas a lower pressure - tyre pressure gauge indicates gauge pressure. The actual
sometimes called a partial vacuum - is negative. pressure in the tyre is atmospheric pressure (approximately
14.7 psi).
A gauge on a pressurized air cylinder measures the pressure
above the ambient atmospheric pressure. This relative Units
pressure is called a gauge pressure. If the cylinder is empty In some units, the pressure being measured is denoted by a
the gauge pressure is zero; not because the pressure inside letter “A”, or “G” or “D” after the unit thus:
the tank is zero, but because the pressure differential (Pd)
across the tank is zero. This means that the ambient pressure psiG = psi – Gauge
and the tank pressure is the same. psiA = psi – Absolute
A gauge pressure of 10 ATM tells us that the pressure inside

the cylinder is 10 ATM above the ambient pressure. The Fluid Dynamics - Gauge and Absolute Pressure
actual pressure that the gas is exerting on the walls of the https://youtu.be/bzaCFkptIlI
cylinder is the absolute pressure. The relationship between
the gauge pressure (Pg), the atmospheric pressure (Patm) and the
absolute pressure (Pabs) is;
Pabs = Patm + Pg

Module 2.2.1
Gauge pressure and absolute pressure use

different zero data
A pressure gauge indicates pressure

above atmospheric (gauge
pressure)
Measuring a flat tyre’s pressure with a gauge will

show zero pressure. But the pressure is in fact
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi approx.)
Module 2.2.1
Barometers
A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric The reading from a barometer (in mm Hg or in Hg) can be
pressure. It can measure the pressure exerted by the converted into Pascals or psi by using the formula:
atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury.
Pressure = ρ g h (if using metric units)
Mercury barometers
A standard mercury barometer has a glass tube of about Or
30 inches (about 76 cm) in height, closed at one end, with an
open mercury-filled reservoir at the base. Mercury (chemical Pressure = ρ h (if using imperial units,
symbol ‘hg’) in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury and density ρ is in lbf/ft3))
column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the Where:
reservoir. High atmospheric pressure places more force on the
reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column. Low pressure Pressure = the converted pressure (Pa or psi)
allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by ρ = density of the mercury (13,600 kg/m3 or 62.4 lbf/ft3)
lowering the force placed on the reservoir. g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2)
h = height of mercury (m or ft)
The mercury barometer’s design gives rise to the expression
of atmospheric pressure in inches or millimetres: the pressure Barometer - Device to calculate air pressure
is quoted as the level of the mercury’s height in the vertical https://youtu.be/JdbWOAfXceA
column. 1 atmosphere is equivalent to about 29.9 inches, or
760 millimetres, of mercury. Barometers of this type normally
measure atmospheric pressures between 28 and 31 inches of
mercury.

Module 2.2.1
Principle of the mercury barometer

The force due to the atmospheric
pressure holds the column of mercury
in the tube. The weight of the column
of mercury is equal to the force due
to atmospheric pressure over the
same cross-sectional area.
Mercury barometer
Mercury barometer

Module 2.2.1
Aneroid barometers
An aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal vacuum
chamber called an aneroid cell. This aneroid capsule (cell) is
made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated
capsule (or usually more capsules) is prevented from
collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air
pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion
and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny
movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the
face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a
manually set needle which is used to mark the current
measurement so a change can be seen. In addition, the
mechanism is made deliberately ‘stiff’ so that tapping the
barometer reveals whether the pressure is rising or falling as
the pointer moves. They are used for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
Aneroid barometer mechanism
https://youtu.be/O55hhntGh1A

Module 2.2.1
Aneroid
barometers

Module 2.2.1
Pressure and force (hydrostatics)
The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the The figure below illustrates a memory aid for recalling the
study of fluids. It is essential that we distinguish between the different variations of this formula. Any letter in the triangle
terms. Force means a total push or pull. It is the push or pull may be expressed as the product or quotient of the other two,
exerted against the total area of a particular surface and is depending on its position within the triangle.
expressed in pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount
of push or pull (force) applied to each unit area of the surface For example, to find area, consider the letter A as being set off
and is expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in2) or to itself, followed by an equal sign. Now look at the other two
Newtons per square metre (N/m2). Pressure maybe exerted in letters. The letter F is above the letter P; therefore,
one direction, in several directions, or in all directions.
Computing force, pressure, and area

A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in Note: Sometimes the area may not be expressed in square
fluid power systems. In this formula, P refers to pressure, F units. If the surface is rectangular, you can determine
indicates force, and A represents area. Force equals pressure its area by multiplying its length (say, in inches) by its
times area. Thus, the formula is written: width (also in inches). The majority of areas you will
consider in these calculations are circular in shape.
F=PxA
Either the radius or the diametre may be given, but you
Pressure equals force divided by area. By rearranging the must know the radius in inches to find the area. The
formula, this statement may be condensed into: radius is one- half the diametre. To determine the area,
use the formula for finding the area of a circle. This is
written A = r2, where A is the area, p is 3.1416 (3.14
or 22/7 for most calculations), and r2 indicates the
radius squared.
Since area equals force divided by pressure, the formula is
written:

Module 2.2.1
The pressure, force and area equation finder

Module 2.2.1
Pressure and forces in liquids
When the end of a solid bar is struck, the main force of the
blow is carried straight through the bar to the other end. This
happens because the bar is rigid. The direction of the blow
almost entyrely determines the direction of the transmitted
force.
When a force is applied to the end of a column of confined

liquid, it is transmitted straight through to the other end and
also equally and undiminished in every direction throughout
the column – forward, backward, and sideways – so that the
containing vessel is litreally filled with pressure.
An example of this distribution of force is illustrated in the

diagram of the water hose. The outward push of the water is
equal in every direction.
So far we have explained the effects of atmospheric pressure

on liquids and how external forces are distributed through
liquids. Let us now focus our attention on forces generated by
the weight of liquids themselves. To do this, we must first
discuss Pascal’s law.

Module 2.2.1
Flat and water filled hoses
Forces acting on solids and liquids

Module 2.2.1
Fluid pressure and depth
This section will explore pressure and depth. If a fluid is within Pressure at a depth in a fluid | Fluids | Physics |
a container, then the depth of an object placed in that fluid can Khan Academy
be measured. The deeper the object is placed in the fluid, the https://youtu.be/5EWjlpc0S00
more pressure it experiences. This is because is the weight of
the fluid above it. The more dense the fluid above it, the more Finding height of fluid in a barometer | Fluids | Physics |
pressure is exerted on the object that is submerged, due to the Khan Academy
weight of the fluid. https://youtu.be/i6gz9VFyYks
The formula that gives the P pressure on an object submerged

in a fluid is:
P=ρgh
Where:
ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid,

g is the acceleration of gravity
h is the height of the fluid above
the object
If the container is open to the atmosphere above, the added

pressure must be included if one is to find the total pressure
on an object. The total pressure is the same as absolute
pressure on pressure readings, while the gauge pressure is
the same as the fluid pressure alone, not including
atmospheric pressure.
Ptotal = Patmosphere + Pfluid
Ptotal = Patmosphere + ρ g h

Module 2.2.1
Due to weight of liquid above, the

pressure increases with depth
Due to weight of liquid above, the pressure increases with depth.

In water, at 10 m depth, the pressure experienced by a diver is
two times the atmospheric pressure at the surface

Module 2.2.1
Buoyancy in liquids
A fluid is a substance that flows easily. Gases and liquids are As Archimedes stepped into his bath, he noticed
fluids, although sometimes the dividing line between liquids that a volume of water equal to his volume
and solids is not always clear. Because of their ability to flow, overflowed! With a flash of insight, he ran through
fluids can exert buoyant forces, multiply forces in hydraulic Athens, stark naked, shouting “Eureka, Eureka, I
systems, allow aircraft to fly and ships to float. have the solution!”
Archimedes principle The experiment was performed, the king was

Archimedes was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who notified that his crown was not pure gold and the
lived about 250BC. There is a story (maybe even true) about royal metal workers lost their lives.
Archimedes that every physics student should hear. It goes as
follows: The point of the story is that a body submerged in a liquid
displaces a volume of water equal to its own volume. A
The king who ruled Greece at that time asked his corollary is that a body that floats in a liquid displaces a
royal metalworkers to make him a gold crown. volume of liquid less than its volume since some portion of the
When the crown was delivered it was indeed body is above the water level.
beautiful. However, the king suspected that the
crown was not pure gold. He did not want to
destroy the crown but he wanted to know if he had
been cheated. What he needed was some type of
non-destructive evaluation (NDE dates back many
years!). He asked Archimedes to solve his problem.
Archimedes pondered the question. The density

(mass/volume) of gold was well known. He knew of
course how to determine the weight and mass of
the crown by simple weighing. However, since the
crown did not have a regular shape it was
impossible to determine the volume by a
mathematical calculation. The solution came to
Archimedes one day when his servant filled his
bathtub too full.

Module 2.2.1
Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes

Module 2.2.1
Archimedes’ principle, states that a body immersed in a fluid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid. The principle applies to both floating and submerged
bodies and to all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases. It explains not
only the buoyancy of ships and other vessels in water but also
the rise of a balloon in the air and the apparent loss of weight
of objects underwater.
In determining whether a given body will float in a given fluid,

both weight and volume must be considered; that is, the
relative density, or weight per unit of volume, of the body
compared to the fluid determines the buoyant force. If the
body is less dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the case of
a balloon, it will rise. If the body is denser than the fluid, it will
sink.
Relative density also determines the proportion of a floating

body that will be submerged in a fluid. If the body is two thirds
as dense as the fluid, then two thirds of its volume will be
submerged, displacing in the process a volume of fluid whose
weight is equal to the entyre weight of the body.
In the case of a submerged body, the apparent weight of the

body is equal to its weight in air less the weight of an equal
volume of fluid. The fluid most often encountered in
applications of Archimedes’ principle is water, and the specific
gravity of a substance is a convenient measure of its relative
density compared to water.
In calculating the buoyant force on a body, however, one must

also take into account the shape and position of the body. A
steel row-boat placed on end into the water will sink because
the density of steel is much greater than that of water.
However, in its normal, keel-down position, the effective
volume of the boat includes all the air inside it, so that its
average density is then less than that of water, and as a result
it Copyright
© will float.
2021 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY May 2021
Module 2.2.1
The buoyancy force applied to the object as it is lowered into the water is equal to the
mass of the water displaced by the object

Module 2.2.1


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Licence Category A, B2 and B3

Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-2 Issue 02 – Revision 00

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Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-3 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mass, force and weight

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-4 Issue 02 – Revision 00

“THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK”

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-5 Issue 02 – Revision 00

The relationship between the metric and imperial units is given

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-6 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mass and weight clarification | Centripetal force

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-7 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Physicists and engineers measure masses of bodies in slugs

This is a form of Newton’s second law (F = ma).

In this equation, g has a definite numerical value. We will use

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-8 Issue 02 – Revision 00

A 100 kg man on the moon

A 100 kg man on Earth

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-9 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Lever arms and moments

Moments are expressed in lbs.ft or Newton metres and the

A 10 N force acts on a spanner, at a perpendicular distance of

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-10 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Moment = Force x distance

Moment = Force x distance

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-11 Issue 02 – Revision 00

An example is the cutting of an internal thread with a tap and

The moment (or torque) of a couple is calculated by

E.g. a steering wheel in a car;

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-12 Issue 02 – Revision 00

A couple’ is a pair of forces of magnitude F that are

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-13 Issue 02 – Revision 00

The defining equation is:

However, it must be remembered that in those cases where 

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-14 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-15 Issue 02 – Revision 00

3. Drill another hole at a different location within the object.

4. Again, hang a plumb line to determine the vertical and

5. The point at which the two marked lines cross is the

Center of mass | Impacts and linear momentum | Physics

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-16 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Finding the centroid of regular shapes

Finding the centroid of irregular shapes

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-17 Issue 02 – Revision 00

The CG of an aeroplane or helicopter is the location where all

Obtaining this balance is simply a matter of placing loads so

Centre of gravity limits

If, due to incorrect loading of an aircraft, the aircraft’s CG is

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-18 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point at which all the

Graphical symbol for

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-19 Issue 02 – Revision 00

A vector quantity is a quantity that is fully described by both

Examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity,

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-20 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-21 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Using the same scale (1 cm = 5 miles), a displacement vector

In conclusion, vectors can be represented by use of a scaled

A vector drawn to Three vectors drawn to scale

Free body diagrams

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-23 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Any vector directed in two dimensions can be thought of as

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.1-24 Issue 02 – Revision 00