Endocrine System

Prepared by: Emmanuel D. Habilag, RN, MANc

The Endocrine System

• The endocrine system is composed of endocrine glands and

specialized endocrine cells located throughout the body.
• Endocrine glands secrete very small amounts of chemical
messengers called Hormones (hor′mōnz) into the bloodstream,
rather than into a duct.
• Hormones circulate through the bloodstream to specific sites
called target tissues, or effectors.
• At their target tissues, hormones stimulate a specific response.
Thus, the term endocrine (en′dō-krin), derived from the Greek
words endo, meaning “within,” and krino, “to secrete,”
appropriately describes this system.
The Endocrine System

• Endocrine glands are not to be confused with exocrine glands.

Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretions to the
outside of the body, or into a hollow organ, such as the stomach
or intestines. Examples of exocrine secretions are saliva, sweat,
breast milk, and digestive enzymes.
The Endocrine System

 Second controlling system of the body

 Nervous system is the fast-control system.
 Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are released into the blood
 Each Hormone has a target cell with a specific receptor for that hormone.
 Major processes that controls by Hormones:
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism
The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System

Classes of Hormones:
• Amino acid derivatives (Thyroid hormone, Epinephrine, Dopamine)
• Peptide hormone (TSH, LH, FSH)
• Lipid derivatives (Androgens, Estrogens)

Negative vs. Positive Feedback

• Negative feedback
• A buildup of the product will eventually shut off the “builders”.
• Ex. = Insulin release related to glucose level
• Positive feedback
• A buildup of the product further enhances the production
• Ex. = Labor pains in relation to delivering a baby
The Endocrine System

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained mostly by negative
feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood trigger the release of more
hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached

 The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into three major categories
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural
The Endocrine System

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

• Hormonal stimuli
• Most common category of stimulus
• Endocrine organs are activated by
other hormones
• Example:
• Hormones of the hypothalamus
stimulate the anterior pituitary to
secrete its hormones
The Endocrine System

Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

 Humoral stimuli
 Changing blood levels of certain ions and
nutrients stimulate hormone release
 Humoral indicates various body fluids, such
as blood and bile
 Examples:
 Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are
produced in response to changing levels of
blood calcium levels
 Insulin is produced in response to changing
levels of blood glucose levels
The Endocrine System

• Neural stimuli
• Nerve fibers stimulate hormone
release
• Most are under the control of the
sympathetic nervous system
• Examples:
• Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal
medulla to release epinephrine and
norepinephrine
The Endocrine System
 The Major Endocrine Organs
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary gland
 Pineal gland
 Thyroid gland
 Parathyroid glands
 Thymus
 Adrenal glands
 Pancreas
 Gonads (testes and ovaries)

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The Endocrine System

The Major Endocrine Organs

• Some glands have purely endocrine functions
• Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroids
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands
• Hormones are released directly into blood or lymph
• Other glands are mixed glands, with both endocrine and
exocrine functions (pancreas, gonads)
The Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 Pituitary gland
 Pea-sized gland that hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
 Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
 Has two functional lobes
 Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
 Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
 Often called the ―master endocrine gland.
The Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

• Hypothalamus produces releasing hormones and inhibiting

hormones
• These hormones are released into portal circulation, which
connects hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
• Hypothalamus also makes two hormones: oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone
• Carried to posterior pituitary via neurosecretory cells for storage
 Figure 9.4 Hormones released by the posterior pituitary and their target organs.

Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles
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 Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamic/Pituitary System
Hormone Pituitary Stimulating Hypothalamic Releasing
Hormone Hormone
Thyroid hormones Thyroid stimulating Thyrotropin-releasing
T4, T3 hormone (TSH) hormone (TRH)
Cortisol Adrenocorticotropin Corticotropin-releasing
hormone (ACTH) factor (CRF)
Estrogen or Follicle-stimulating Luteinizing hormone-
testosterone hormone (FSH), releasing hormone (LHRH)
Luteinizing hormone or gonadotropin- releasing
(LH) hormone (GnRH)

Insulinlike growth Growth hormone Growth hormone-

factor-I (IGF-I) releasing hormone
(GHRH)
 Hypothalamus also secretes somatostatin – pituitary gland to stop the
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release of growth hormone
 Figure 9.5 Hormones of the anterior pituitary and their major target organs.

Releasing hormones Hypothalamus

secreted into portal
circulation

Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Hypophyseal
portal system Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)

Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary hormone (LH)
glands
Thyroid

Testes or ovaries

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The Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 Six anterior pituitary hormones
 Two hormones affect nonendocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
 Four are tropic hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 Anterior
Pituitary
Hormone Function
Growth Hormone • Stimulates bone growth and tissue
• Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for
a source of energy

Prolactin Stimulates milk production in females

Gonadotropic hormones Control sexual function and
(1) Luteinizing hormone (LH) production of sex steroids, estrogen
(2) Follicle-stimulating and progesterone
hormone

Thyroid-stimulating hormone Influences growth and activity of

(thyrotropic hormone) the thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Regulates endocrine activity of the
adrenal cortex
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The Endocrine System

• Growth hormone (GH) disorders

• Pituitary dwarfism results from hyposecretion of GH
during childhood
• Gigantism results from hypersecretion of GH during
childhood
• Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of GH during
adulthood
 Pituitary dwarf (left), Giant (center), Normal height woman (right)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.5

 Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Uterine muscles Figure 9.6
 Posterior Pituitary (Hypothalamus)
Hormone Function
Oxytocin • Stimulates contractions of the
uterus during labor, sexual
relations, and breastfeeding
• Causes milk ejection in a nursing
woman

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) • Inhibits urine production by

promoting water reabsorption
by the kidneys
• Causes vasoconstriction (large
amounts) leading to increased
blood pressure. Also known as
vasopressin

Diabetes insipidus - Hyposecretion of ADH

* Continually thirsty and drink huge amounts of water.
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The Endocrine System

Pineal Gland
 Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain
 Secretes melatonin
 Believed to trigger the body’s sleep/wake cycle
 Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in humans and to inhibit the
reproductive system until maturity occurs
The Endocrine System

Thyroid Gland
 Found at the base of the throat, inferior
to the Adam’s apple
 Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
 Follicles are hollow structures that
store colloidal material
 Produces two hormones
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin
 Hormone Function
Thyroid hormone • Major metabolic hormone
• Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply
body heat and chemical energy
• Needed for tissue growth and development
• Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones
Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicle
Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at
target tissues

Calcitonin • Decreases blood calcium levels by causing

calcium deposition on bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
• Produced by parafollicular cells found between
the follicles

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 Thyroid Hormone Disorders
• Goiters
• Thyroid gland enlarges due
to lack of iodine
• Salt is iodized to prevent
goiters
• Cretinism
• Caused by hyposecretion of
thyroxine
• Results in dwarfism during
childhood

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 Thyroid Hormone Disorders

• Myxedema
• Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
• Results in physical and mental
sluggishness
• Graves’ disease
• Caused by hyperthyroidism
• Results in increased metabolism, heat
intolerance, rapid heartbeat, weight loss,
and exophthalmos

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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.9
The Endocrine System

Parathyroid Glands
 Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
 Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Most important regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the
blood
 Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
 Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood calcium levels)
 Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
 Figure 9.7 Hormonal control of the level of calcium ions in the blood.

Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.

Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.

Stimulus
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels

Calcium homeostasis of
BALANCE blood: BALANCE

9–11 mg/100 ml Stimulus

Falling blood
Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
PTH hormone (PTH).
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The Endocrine System

Thymus
 Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum
 Largest in infants and children
 Decreases in size throughout adulthood
 Produces a hormone called thymosin
 Matures some types of white blood cells
 Important in developing the immune system
The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Sit on top of the kidneys
 Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has three layers that produce
corticosteroids
 Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outermost layer
 Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer
 Sex hormones are secreted by innermost layer
2. Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region
The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of the adrenal cortex
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
 Produced in outer adrenal cortex
 Regulate mineral (salt) content in blood, particularly sodium and potassium
ions
 Regulate water and electrolyte balance
 Target organ is the kidney
The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
 Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
 Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or too many potassium ions in
the blood)
 Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
 Renin and angiotensin II in response to a drop in blood pressure
 Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a
hormone produced by the heart when blood pressure is too high
The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
 Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
 Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or too many potassium ions in
the blood)
 Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
 Renin and angiotensin II in response to a drop in blood pressure
 Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a
hormone produced by the heart when blood pressure is too high
 Figure 9.9 Major mechanisms controlling aldosterone release from the adrenal
cortex.
Decreased Na+ or
increased K+ in Stress
blood
Hypothalamus
Decreased Corticotropin-
blood volume releasing
and/or blood hormone
pressure Anterior
pituitary

ACTH Increased
Kidney blood pressure
or blood
volume

Renin
Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
angiotensin Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Angiotensin II

Direct
stimulating Inhibitory
effect effect

Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex

Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules

Increased absorption Increased blood

of Na+ and water; volume and
increased K+ excretion blood pressure

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The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
 Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
 Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
 Promote normal cell metabolism
 Help resist long-term stressors by increasing blood glucose levels
(hyperglycemic hormone)
 Anti-inflammatory properties
 Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH
The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)
 Sex hormones
 Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
 Small amounts are made throughout life
 Most of the hormones produced are androgens (male sex hormones), but
some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed
The Endocrine System

Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal medulla
 Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
 These hormones prepare the body to deal with short- term stress (―fight or
flight) by:
 Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
 Dilating small passageways of lungs
 Figure 9.10 Roles of the hypothalamus, adrenal medulla, and adrenal cortex in the stress
response.
Short term Stress More prolonged
Hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal cord
Corticotropic cells of
anterior pituitary

ACTH Adrenal
Preganglionic cortex
Adrenal sympathetic
medulla fibers

Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids

Short -term stress Long-term stress response

response
Catecholamines 1. Increased heart rate 1. Retention of 1. Proteins and fats
(epinephrine and 2. Increased blood pressure sodium and water by converted to
norepinephrine) 3. Liver converts glycogen to kidneys glucose or broken
glucose and releases 2. Increased blood down for energy
glucose to blood volume and blood 2. Increased blood
4. Dilation of bronchioles pressure sugar
5. Changes in blood flow 3. Suppression of
patterns, leading to immune
increased alertness and system
decreased digestive and
kidney activity
6. Increased metabolic rate
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The Endocrine System

Pancreatic Islets
 Pancreas
 Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
 Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine functions
 The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) produce
hormones
 Insulin—produced by beta cells
 Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis
The Endocrine System

 Insulin
 Released when blood glucose levels are high
 Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by body cells
 Effects are hypoglycemic
 Glucagon
 Released when blood glucose levels are low
 Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus increasing blood
glucose levels
 Figure 9.12 Regulation of the blood glucose level by a negative feedback mechanism involving pancreatic
hormones.
Uptake of
glucose from
blood is
enhanced in most
body cells.

Insulin-secreting cells Insulin Tissue cells

of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into
the blood. Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood Liver takes up for insulin release
sugar level glucose and stores diminishes.
as glycogen.

Stimulus
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after BALANCE: Normal blood glucose level
eating four jelly
doughnuts) (about 90 mg/100 ml) Stimulus
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after
Blood glucose rises skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar
set point; stimulus level
for glucagon
release diminishes.

Glucagon-releasing
Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
Liver breaks
down glycogen activated; release
stores and Liver glucagon into blood.
releases glucose Glucagon
to the blood.
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The Endocrine System

Gonads
 Produce sex cells
 Produce sex hormones

 Ovaries
 Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
 Produce eggs
 Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
 Testes
 Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic cavity
 Produce sperm
 Produce androgens, such as testosterone
The Endocrine System

Gonads
 Estrogens
 Stimulate the development of secondary female characteristics
 Mature the female reproductive organs

 Progesterone
 Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
 Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
 Helps prepare breasts for lactation

 With progesterone, estrogens also:

 Promote breast development
 Regulate menstrual cycle
The Endocrine System

Gonads
 Testes
 Produce several androgens
 Testosterone is the most important androgen
 Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
 Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell production
The Endocrine System

 Other organs that are generally nonendocrine in function also

secrete hormones
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Kidneys
 Heart
The Endocrine System

 Other organs that are generally nonendocrine in function also

secrete hormones
 Placenta
 Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy
 Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
 Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to
estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones
 Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares the breasts for lactation
 Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis for childbirth
 Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (1 of 3).

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 Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (2 of 3).

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 Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (3 of 3).

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The Endocrine System

Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

 In the absence of disease, efficiency of the endocrine system
remains high until old age
 Decreasing function of female ovaries at menopause leads to
such symptoms as osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
disease, and possible mood changes
The Endocrine System

Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

 Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually decreases with aging,
which leads to a generalized increase in incidence of:
 Diabetes mellitus
 Immune system depression
 Lower metabolic rate
 Cancer rates in some areas