Unit Two

• Forms of schooling/education, the goal of

education, diversity in education and school
culture and Leadership
• Unit objectives
– After successful completion of this unit you will be able
to:
• Explain the purpose of schooling
• Appreciate the different forms of education
• Explain the major goal of education
• Define diversity in education
• Appreciate strategies to address diversity in education
• Explain the relationship between school culture and
04/21/2024 leadership school and society -unit two 1
 The purpose and forms of
schooling/Education
• Purpose:
• Two primary opposing views exist regarding the
purpose of schools.
• an organization created by governors and
business leaders, believe that the primary
purpose of schools should be
– to create workers who have skills and personal styles
to fill and perform available jobs.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 2

 Cont…
• Others believe this outcome is too narrow. For
this group schools should seek to
– develop active citizens
– helping children develop their own capacity for
personal achievement
– contributing to society as an active citizen for
democracy.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 3

 Cont…
• These two goals, producing workers and
creating citizens, require two very different
approaches.
(1) provide a way of sorting workers in rank order of
ability, eliminating those from the pool who do
not have the perceived capacity to function as
employees.
(2) create a pool of workers with at least minimum
competence and attitudes from which businesses
can select employees
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 4
 Cont…
• some key strategies that may lead to schools accomplishing
these personnel office functions in the societal service of
business.
 Identify basic skills that all students should achieve, skills needed in
most jobs in business and industry
 Use tests to rank students or, at minimum, identify students as
competent or incompetent on basic skills
 Increase the number of students meeting competence in basic skills.
 Assure that the curriculum focuses narrowly on the basic skills
rather than curriculum options that address individual interests and
needs
 Facilitate conditions under which students with challenges drop out
of the system to reduce costs
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• Students are nurtured to become adults who
have skills, attitudes, and knowledge to be
productive community members, leaders,
parents, as well as workers.
• schools and teachers would be about in such
schools:
Help students identify their interests and abilities
Support students in setting personal learning goals
Facilitate student involvement and learning in
decision-making regarding their own learning and
the use of power and responsibility in the classroom
and school
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 Contd…

Create a culture of care and community where

students learn to support one another and take
responsibility for the well being of each other and
the total community
Facilitate students learning together in a diverse
environment
Teach students who are functioning at many
differing levels of ability together in heterogeneous
mixes
Assess student skills and learning styles to
facilitate learning and promote personal excellence

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 7

 some examples of mission statements of public schools:

1. To provide a wide collection of instructional programs

that
• assure core competencies
• nurture the unique talents of the individuals
• that are regularly revised to meet current needs and anticipate
challenges;
2. To provide and regularly review a wide and relevant
collection of extracurricular and co-curricular activities at
all levels that
• foster lifelong learning by nurturing the unique talents of each
individual and
• promoting social responsibility.
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 Mission statements of public schools

3.To prepare its students for

– responsible citizenship, with sound character,
– lifelong learning,
– productive employment through programs and
activities which challenge and develop
– language literacy,
– mathematical proficiency,
– scientific competence, and
– social maturity
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 9
 following can be considered as common purposes of schools.

Helping students to
1. become an informed citizen
2. Be able to read for pleasure
3. Be trained in the rudimentary skills necessary for employment
4. Homogenize society, at least a bit
5. Pasteurize out the dangerous ideas
6. Teach future citizens how to conform
7. Teach future consumers how to desire
8. Build a social fabric
9. be leaders who help us compete on a world stage
10. Generate future scientists who will advance science and
technology
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 10
 Cont…
11. Learn for the sake of learning
12. Help people become interesting and productive
13. Establish a floor below which a typical person is
unlikely to fall
14. Teach future citizens to obey authority
15. Increase appreciation for art and culture
16. Teach creativity and problem solving
17. Increase emotional intelligence
18. Decrease crime by teaching civics and ethics
19. Increase understanding of a life well lived
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 1.1.2. Forms of schooling/Education
• In educational literature, the study of alternative
education systems often mentions
Four types:
– “open systems”,
– “non-formal education”,
– “distance learning”,
– “non-conventional studies”
among other terms.
However there are three forms of education, i.e.
1. Formal,
2. Non-formal and
3. Informal education
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 FORMAL EDUCATION

• Formal education corresponds to

– a systematic, organized education model,
– structured and administered according to a given
set of laws and norms,
– presenting a rather rigid curriculum as regards
objectives, content and methodology

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 Formal education
• It is characterized by
– a contiguous education process
– which necessarily involves the teacher, the students
and the institution.
Formal education institutions are
– administratively,
– physically and
– curricularly organized
• require from students a minimum classroom
attendance.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 14
 Formal Education
– involving intermediate and final assessments
– It award degrees and diplomas pursuant to a quite strict set
of regulations.
– The methodology is basically expositive, scarcely relating to
the desired behavioral objectives -
– Assessments are made on a general basis, for administrative
purposes and are infrequently used to improve the education
process.
• Their character is, disciplinary, following a mono-
directional methodology that fails
– to stimulate students
– to provide for their active participation in the process, though
in most cases, failures school
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socity unit two to them. 15
 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
• if a given education system is not presential most
of the time - non-contiguous communication - we
may say that it has non-formal education features.
• Likewise, non-formal education characteristics are
found when the adopted strategy
– does not require student attendance,
– decreasing the contacts between teacher and student
and
– most activities take place outside the institution - as
for instance, home reading and paperwork.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 16

 Cont…
• Educative processes endowed with
– flexible curricula and methodology,
– capable of adapting to the needs and interests of
students,
– for which time is not a pre-established factor but
is contingent upon the student’s work pace,
– certainly do not correspond to those comprised by
formal education, but fit into the so-called non-
formal education.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 17

 Non formal education
• the existing non-formal systems reveals the
constant presence of two features:
(a) centralization of the process on the student, as to
his previously identified needs and possibilities; and,
(b) the immediate usefulness of the education for the
student’s personal and professional growth

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 18

 Cont…
• Non-formal education seems better to meet the
individual needs of students.
• According to Ward, et al. (1974) a systematic
analysis of the main features of non-formal
education, diversely from formal schooling, shows
that
– participants are led to non-formal programmes
because these offer the expertise that they hope to
acquire and the necessary assistance for a better
understanding of their own selves and of their world.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 19
 Non-formal education
• Given its scope, non-formal education is comprised of
an ample diversity of educational situations, many of
which have played a significant role in the renewal of
educational systems.
• We shall now analyze three educative processes,
namely:
1. “correspondence learning”,
2. “distance learning” and
3. “open systems”, which, because of their features fall
within the scope of non-formal education.
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 Correspondence Learning

• organized, structured correspondence schools

date from more than one century.
• Nowadays, there is a large number of
correspondence schools all over the World,
encompassing studies that range from basic
education to university studies, including a
wide variety of subjects in the professional
area.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 21

 Cont…
• the main features of correspondence learning
• found in all age brackets and economic-social classes.
• It is a planned and systematized activity,
• based on the preparation of printed educational
materials which are forwarded to students who are
physically separated from the teachers
• is an individualized learning system that allows students
to proceed at their own pace, according to their interests.
• The institutional materials are for the most part printed
and are generally prepared by a teacher.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 22

 Cont…
• Correspondence courses generally
– establish a bi-directional communication by mail,
– supported by the teacher who corrects the
paperwork,
– offers guidance and the requested explanations.
• A degree may or may not be obtained and
• there is no pressure - the student’s motivation
is the basic factor for the program’s success.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 23

 Distance Learning
• is learning supported by those teaching methods in which,
because of the physical separateness of learners and
teachers,
• the interactive, as well as the pre-active phase of teaching is
conducted through print, mechanical or electronic devices.
• based on non-contiguous communication, that is, “the
learner is at a distance from the teacher for much, most or
even all the time during the teaching-learning process”.
• Based on this definition, we may infer that the concept of
distance learning is wider than that of correspondence
learning, with which it is sometimes confused.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 24
 Open Systems

• Open learning systems are defined as

– those which offer students a measure of flexibility and autonomy,
– to study the programmes of their choice when and where they wish,
– and at a pace to suit their circumstances.
• “non-formal education instances, jointly with correspondence
learning and distance study.
• correspondence learning can be deemed a type of distance
learning and, as distance learning can be said to be an
instance of open systems, we conclude that this latter is in the
most widely encompassing class among non-formal education
examples.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 25
 INFORMAL EDUCATION
• Informal education is quite diverse from formal education and,
particularly, from non-formal education, although in certain
cases it is capable of maintaining a close relationship with both.
– It does not correspond to an organized and systematic view of
education;
– informal education does not necessarily include the objectives and
subjects usually encompassed by the traditional curricula.
– It is aimed at students as much as at the public at large and imposes
no obligations whatever their nature.
– no control over the performed activities,
– informal education does not of necessity regard the providing of
degrees or diplomas;
– it merely supplements both formal and non-formal education.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 26
 Informal education
• Informal education for instance comprises the
following activities:
(a) - visits to museums or to scientific and other fairs and
exhibits, etc.;
(b) - listening to radio broadcasting or watching TV
programmes on educational or scientific themes;
(c) - reading texts on sciences, education, technology, etc. in
journals and magazines;
(d) - participating in scientific contests, etc.;
(e) attending lectures and conferences.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 27

 Cont…
• There are many instances of situations/activities
encompassed by informal education, from those
that may take place in the students’ homes - such
as
• scientific or didactic games,
• manipulation of kits,
• experiments,
• reading sessions (biographies, scientific news, etc.) - to
institutional activities –
• lectures in institutions, visiting museums, etc.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 28
 The Goal /purpose of Education?
• Different philosophers explain the purpose/goal
of education in different ways as their
philosophy of education is not alike. Let us look
at how the purpose of education is presented by
different philosophers.
• Philosophers- Dewey
– (Progressivism)
– (Pragmatism)

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 29

 Method of knowing

– active learning through concrete social experience

such as problem-solving, discovery learning or in-
quiry approach
• the purpose of education
• Social, emotional, and mental development
• full experiential growth of the individual to meet imme-
diate needs and desires of students

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 30

 Cont..
• Philosopher- Hutchins
– (Liberal education)
– (Essentialism)
• Method of knowing
• acquisition of knowledge of the most important subjects
such as philosophy, history, literature, and art
• learning by having experiences to fully understand the
subject matter that require experiences

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 Purpose of education
• Liberal (open minded) education
• Development of intellectual powers to realize human po-
tential
• Improvement of human by help students understand, es-
tablish, and live by a hierarchy of values
• Provision of the habits, ideas, and techniques that stu-
dents need to continue to educate themselves through-
out their lives
• Promotion of political freedom or social reform by
development of understanding and judgment

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 32

 Cont…
• Philosopher - Adler
• (Perennialism) permanent
• Method of knowing
• Active learning with the whole mind
• Didactic instruction, lecturing, and textbooks
• Coaching, exercises, supervised practice
• Maieutic or Socratic questioning and active participation

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 33

 Purpose of education
• General and liberal education
• Providing ample opportunity for personal development
• Preparing students for the political duties and responsi-
bilities of citizenship with all the trained intelligence
• Preparing students for earning a living, not by specific
training for specific job.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 34

 Cont….
• Where Dewey and Hutchins differ the most in
their view point of area of school education.
• Dewey saw the goal of education as social-
emotional-mental growth.
• By contrast, Hutchins only focused on
intellectual training.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 35

 Section three: Diversity in Education

• The definition of diversity includes a set of

conscious awareness in lived experiences. It
includes:
• Understanding and respecting interdependence of
humanity, cultures, and natural environment;
• practicing mutual admiration for different qualities and
experiences;
• understanding other ways of being and ways of knowing;
• understanding that individual and cultural discrimination
maintains privileges for particular groups while creating
disadvantages for others;
• and eradicating all types of discrimination while
04/21/2024 empowering school culture
school and socity unit two 36
 Why it is important to address Diversity?

• to identify effective methods to teach students,

• to educate students varying in culture, language, abilities,
and many other characteristics.
• teachers must employ not only theoretically sound but also
culturally responsive pedagogy.
• To create a classroom culture regardless of their cultural and
linguistic background
• provided with the best opportunity to learn.
• To increase student success,
• it is imperative that teachers help students bridge this
discontinuity between home and school
• Moreover, a culturally responsive instructional environment
minimizes the students’ alienation(hostility, isolation)
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 37
 What is Culturally Responsive Pedagogy?

• Culturally responsive pedagogy

– facilitates and supports the achievement of all
students,
– Providing effective teaching and learning in a
culturally supported, learner-centered context,
– strengths students bring to school are identified,
nurtured, and utilized to promote student
achievement.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 38

 Cont…
• Culturally responsive pedagogy comprises
three dimensions:
(a) institutional,
(b) personal, and
(c) instructional.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 39

 Cont…
• The institutional dimension reflects the administration and
its policies and values.
• The personal dimension refers to the cognitive and
emotional processes teachers must engage in to become
culturally responsive.
• The instructional dimension includes materials, strategies,
and activities that form the basis of instruction.
• All three dimensions significantly
– interact in the teaching and learning process and
– are critical to understanding the effectiveness of culturally
responsive pedagogy.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 40

 The Institutional Dimension: What Must the Educational System Do?

• The educational system is the institution that provides the physical

and political structure for schools.
• To make the institution more culturally responsive, reforms must
occur in at least three specific areas (Little, 1999):
1. Organization of the school—this includes the administrative structure
and the way it relates to diversity and the use of physical space in
planning schools and arranging classrooms.
2. School policies and procedures—this refers to those policies and
practices that impact on the delivery of services to students from diverse
backgrounds.
3. Community involvement—This is concerned with the institutional
approach to community involvement in which families and communities
are expected to find ways to become involved in the school, rather than
the school seeking connections with families and communities.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 41
 The Personal Dimension: How Do Teachers Become Culturally Responsive?

– Teacher self-reflection is an important part of the personal dimension.

Teacher become culturally responsive :
– By honestly examining their attitudes and beliefs about themselves and
others,
– teachers begin to discover why they are ,who they are, and can
confront biases that have influenced their value system .
– teachers’ values impact relationships with students and their families,
– teachers must reconcile negative feelings towards any cultural,
language, or ethnic group.
– Often teachers are resistant to the notion that their values might reflect
prejudices or even racism towards certain groups.
– help to create an atmosphere of trust and acceptance for students and
their families,
– Leads students resulting in greater opportunity for student success.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 42
 Specific Activities for becoming culturally Responsive Teacher

A. Engage in reflective thinking and writing.

B. Explore personal and family histories.
C. Acknowledge membership in different groups.
D. Learn about the history and experiences of diverse
groups.
E. Visit students’ families and communities.
F. Visit or read about successful teachers in diverse
settings.
G. Develop an appreciation of diversity.
H. Participate in reforming the institution.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 43

 The Instructional Dimension: How Does Instruction Become Culturally Responsive ?

• When the tools of instruction (i.e., books,

teaching methods, and activities) are mismatched
with, or worse marginalize, the students’ cultural
experiences, a disconnect with school is likely .
• Culturally responsive pedagogy
– recognizes and utilizes the students’ culture and
language in instruction, and
– ultimately respects the students’ personal and
community identities.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 44

 Specific Activities for Culturally Responsive Instruction

a) Acknowledge students’ differences as well as their commonalities.

b) Validate students’ cultural identity in classroom practices and
instructional materials.
c) Educate students about the diversity of the world around them.
d) Promote equity and mutual respect among students.
e) Assess students’ ability and achievement validly .
f) Foster a positive interrelationship among students, their families,
the community, and school .
g) Motivate students to become active participants in their learning.
h) Encourage students to think critically.
i) Challenge to strive for excellence as defined by their potential.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 45

 Section Four: School culture and Leadership

School culture
• School culture is a broader term and encompasses
– how students and adults feel about their school
– Students identifies the values, traditions, assumptions,
beliefs and ways that give the school its identity and
specify its standards for behavior.
• School culture has a powerful effect on school
community.
• It tells people in the school what is truly important
and how they are to act.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 46
 School culture
• School culture is the pattern of values, norms, beliefs, attitudes
and assumptions that may not have been articulated but shape
the ways in which people behave and things get done.
• Values refer to what is believed to be important about how people
and the organizations behave.
• Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour.
• The definition emphasizes that organizational/school culture is
concerned with abstractions such as values and norms which
pervade the whole or part of school.
• culture can be regarded as a ‘code word for the subjective side of
organizational life’.
• Nevertheless, culture can have a significant influence on people’s
behavior.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 47
 School culture
• At the root of any organization's culture is a set of core
characteristics that are collectively valued by members of an
organization.
• Organizations may be distinguished with respect to their basic
values, such as the very fundamental ones summarized here.
1. Sensitivity to needs of customers and employees
2. Freedom to initiate new ideas
3. Willingness to tolerate taking risks
4. Openness to communication options

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 48

 Cont…
• Some Characteristics of a Positive School Culture
– Positive staff attitude and high morale
– Teamwork and the sharing of responsibilities
– A healthy and safe physical environment
– Opportunities for student involvement, commitment, responsibility and
success
– High expectations for students and teachers
– Clear and effective communications of school expectations
– The nurturing of personal identity
– The encouragement and recognition of achievement
– Opportunities for shared activities and community interaction
– Significant involvement of the parents and guardians
– The encouragement of risk-taking
– The acknowledgment of mistakes as part of learning
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 49
 Leadership

• Leadership has been defined in various ways, depending on whether

the emphasis is behavioral, economic, or managerial.
• The behavioral orientation of leadership is considered, as the
emphasis should be in building up a willing and able workforce in an
organization.
• Thus, leadership may be defined as the art or process of influencing
employees so that they will strive willingly toward the realization of
common goals (personal goals and organizational goals).
• The leadership process consists of three elements
– the leader,
– the follower, and
– specific situation in which leadership is exercised.
• And the essence of leadership is followership.
04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 50
 Cont…
• The important characteristics of leadership are:
1. Leadership is a personal quality
2. Leadership assumes the existence of a group. It is
only when there is group of followers that the
leadership can exist.
3. Leadership aims at influencing people.
4. Leadership can exist only when it is for the
realization of common goals.

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 51

 Significance of Leadership

• Leadership is said to have the following significance:

i) Improves employee motivation and morale
ii). Leads to higher performance
iii) It is an aid to authority
iv). Determines organizational effectiveness

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 52

 Culture and its Implications to
Instructional Leadership
• Schools with strong cultures will have effective leadership with
exceptional student performance.
• Deal (1985) identified eight attributes of effective schools with
strong cultures:
1. Shared values and a consensus on “how we get things done around
here”.
2. The principal as a hero or heroine who embodies core values.
3. Distinctive ritual that embody widely shared beliefs.
4. Employees as situational heroes or heroines.
5. Rituals of acculturation and cultural renewal.
6. Significant ritual to celebrate and transform core values.
7. Balance between innovation and tradition and between autonomy and
control.
8. Widespread participation
04/21/2024 inand
school cultural rituals.
socity unit two 53
 Cont…
• There are thirteen possible characteristics
identified by Phillips and Wagner for cultural
improvement in:
1. schools-collegiality (the way adults treat each other;)
2. efficacy (the feeling of ownership or capacity to influence
decisions;)
3. high expectations (excellence is acknowledged; improvement is
celebrated;)
4. experimentation and entrepreneurship (new ideas abound and
inventions occur;)
5. trust and confidence (participants believe in the leads and each
other;)
6. tangible support (efforts at improvement are substantive with
04/21/2024
abundant resourcesschool
made available by all;)
and socity unit two 54
 Cont…
7. appreciation and recognition improvement (people feel
special and act special;)
8. humor (caring is expressed through “kidding;”)
9. shared decision-making by all participants (anyone affected
by a decision is involved in making and implementing the
decision;)
10. protect what is important (participant keep the vision and
avoid trivial tasks;)
11. traditions (celebrations open and honest
12. communication (information flows throughout the
organization in formal and informal channels;) and
13. metaphors and stories (evidence of behavior being
communicated and influenced by internal imagery).

04/21/2024 school and socity unit two 55

 The end

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