X-ray Radiation Physics (RAD240)

3. The Atom

Phillip Jason White, Ph.D.

Department of Radiology
Brigham and Women's Hospital | Harvard Medical School
221 Longwood Avenue | EBRC 521
Boston, MA 02115

Contact: (617) 525-7465, white@bwh.harvard.edu

 N. Bohr
The Atom
 FIRE

Hot Dry

AIR EARTH

Wet Cold

WATER

History of the Atom

J. Dalton 1808
The Elements
D. Mendeleev 1869
The Elements
Groups

Periods
The Periodic Table
 H Hydrogen Ca Calcium I Iodine
He Helium Ti Titanium Xe Xenon
Li Lithium Mn Manganese Cs Cesium
Be Beryllium Fe Iron Ba Barium
C Carbon Co Cobalt W Tungsten
N Nitrogen Ni Nickel Ir Iridium
O Oxygen Cu Copper Pt Platinum
Na Sodium Zn Zinc Au Gold
Mg Magnesium Mo Molybdenum Hg Mercury
Al Aluminum Tc Technetium Pb Lead
Si Silicon Rh Rhodium Po Polonium
P Phosphorus Pd Palladium Rn Radon
S Sulfur Ag Silver Ra Radium
Cl Chlorine Cd Cadmium Gd Gadolinium
Ar Argon In Indium U Uranium
K Potassium Sn Tin Pu Plutonium

Element Symbols
 - -
- -
- -
-
- - -
- -
- -
-
-
- -
J.J. Thomson

Plum Pudding Model

 - -
- -
- -
-
- - -
- -
+
- -
-
-
- -
E. Rutherford

Gold Foil Experiment

 - -
-
- -
- -
- ~10-15 m (1 fm)
-
- + K
L -
- - M
- -
- -
-

~10-10 m (1 Å)
N. Bohr

Bohr Model
 - Electron
-
- - charge = -1
- - mass = 9.109×10-31 kg
- - mass = 0.000549 amu
- ~10-15 m (1 fm)
- + Proton
- K charge = +1
L - mass = 1.673×10-27 kg
- - M mass = 1.00728 amu

Nucleons
- -
- -
- Neutron
charge = 0
~10-10 m (1 Å) mass = 1.675×10-27 kg
mass = 1.00867 amu
N. Bohr

Bohr Model
 mass → ≈2.3 MeV/c2 ≈1.275 GeV/c2 ≈173.07 GeV/c2 0 ≈126 GeV/c2
charge → 2/3 2/3 2/3 0 0
spin → 1/2 u 1/2 c 1/2 t 1 g 0 H
up charm top gluon Higgs Boson

≈4.8 MeV/c2 ≈95 MeV/c2 ≈4.18 GeV/c2 0

𝛄
-1/3 -1/3 -1/3 0
d s b
Quarks
1/2 1/2 1/2 1

down strange bottom photon

0.511 MeV/c2 105.7 MeV/c2 1.777 GeV/c2 91.2 GeV/c2

𝝁
-1 -1 -1 0
1/2 e 1/2 1/2 𝝉 1 Z
electron muon tau Z boson

Gauge Bosons
<2.2 eV/c2 <0.17 MeV/c2 <15.5 MeV/c2 80.4 GeV/c2

𝝂e 𝝂𝝁 𝝂𝝉
0 0 0 ±1
W
Leptons

1/2 1/2 1/2 1

electron muon tau
neutrino neutrino neutrino
W boson

The Standard Model

 1 8
Valence Electrons
2 3 4 5 6 7
0, 1, or 2

The Periodic Table

 Two rules for atomic orbital filling:
1. Maximum # of electrons = 2n2
2. The outermost shell ≤ 8 electrons

Shell n Permitted
Electrons
K 1 2 (= 2 × 12)
N M L K L 2 8 (= 2 × 22)
M 3 18 (= 2 × 32)
N 4 32 (= 2 × 42)
O 5 50 (= 2 × 52)
P 6 72 (= 2 × 62)

Electron Shells
 Sulfur (Z=16)
Two rules for atomic orbital filling:
1. Maximum # of electrons = 2n2
- 2. The outermost shell ≤ 8 electrons
- -
- - Permitted
- Shell n Electrons
-
- K 1 2 (= 2 × 12)
N M L K L 2 8 (= 2 × 22)
- M 3 18 (= 2 × 32)
-
- N 4 32 (= 2 × 42)
- -
- - O 5 50 (= 2 × 52)
K=2
L=8 - P 6 72 (= 2 × 62)
M=6

Electron Shells
 Potassium (Z=19)
Two rules for atomic orbital filling:
1. Maximum # of electrons = 2n2
- 2. The outermost shell ≤ 8 electrons
- -
- - Permitted
- Shell n Electrons
-
- - K 1 2 (= 2 × 12)
N M L K L 2 8 (= 2 × 22)
- -
M 3 18 (= 2 × 32)
-
- - N 4 32 (= 2 × 42)
- -
- - O 5 50 (= 2 × 52)
K=2
L=8 - P 6 72 (= 2 × 62)
M=8
N=1

Electron Shells
 Calcium (Z=20)
Two rules for atomic orbital filling:
1. Maximum # of electrons = 2n2
- 2. The outermost shell ≤ 8 electrons
- -
- - Permitted
- Shell n Electrons
-
- - K 1 2 (= 2 × 12)
N M L K L 2 8 (= 2 × 22)
- -
M 3 18 (= 2 × 32)
-
- - N 4 32 (= 2 × 42)
- -
- - O 5 50 (= 2 × 52)
K=2
L=8 - P 6 72 (= 2 × 62)
-
M=8
N=2

Electron Shells
 Projectile - eV
Ei ≥ 13.6 eV
Electron Z Element Eb(K) Eb(L) Eb(M)
1 H 13.6 - -
2 He 24.6 - -
-
3 Li 54.8 5.3 -
4 Be 112.1 8.0 -

+ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
K
19 K 3607.4 377.1 33.9
20 Ca 4038.1 437.8 43.7
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
74 W 69,525 12,100 2820 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

1 eV = 1.610-19 J

Binding Energy
 Projectile - eV
Ei ≥ 13.6 eV
Electron Z Element Eb(K) Eb(L) Eb(M)
1 H 13.6 - -
2 He 24.6 - -
-
3 Li 54.8 5.3 -
4 Be 112.1 8.0 -

+ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
K
19 K 3607.4 377.1 33.9
20 Ca 4038.1 437.8 43.7
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

- 74 W 69,525 12,100 2820 ⋯

Projectile ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
Electron
-
Ionized K-Shell Electron 1 eV = 1.610-19 J

Binding Energy
 Projectile - eV
Ei ≥ 24.6 eV
Electron Z Element Eb(K) Eb(L) Eb(M)
1 H 13.6 - -
2 He 24.6 - -
-
3 Li 54.8 5.3 -
4 Be 112.1 8.0 -
+ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
K +
19 K 3607.4 377.1 33.9
20 Ca 4038.1 437.8 43.7
- ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
74 W 69,525 12,100 2820 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

1 eV = 1.610-19 J

Binding Energy
 Projectile - eV
Ei ≥ 24.6 eV
Electron Z Element Eb(K) Eb(L) Eb(M)
1 H 13.6 - -
2 He 24.6 - -
-
3 Li 54.8 5.3 -
4 Be 112.1 8.0 -
+ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
K +
19 K 3607.4 377.1 33.9
20 Ca 4038.1 437.8 43.7
- ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

- 74 W 69,525 12,100 2820 ⋯

Projectile ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
Electron
-
Ionized K-Shell Electron 1 eV = 1.610-19 J

Binding Energy
 Projectile - eV
Ei ≥ 5.3 eV
Electron Z Element Eb(K) Eb(L) Eb(M)
1 H 13.6 - -
2 He 24.6 - -
-
3 Li 54.8 5.3 -
4 Be 112.1 8.0 -

++ - ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
L K +
19 K 3607.4 377.1 33.9
20 Ca 4038.1 437.8 43.7
- ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
74 W 69,525 12,100 2820 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

1 eV = 1.610-19 J

Binding Energy
 eV

Z Element Eb(K) Eb(L) Eb(M)

1 H 13.6 - -
-
- - 2 He 24.6 - -
- -
- 3 Li 54.8 5.3 -
- 4 Be 112.1 8.0 -
-
- ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⋯ N M L K
- - 19 K 3607.4 377.1 33.9
- 20 Ca 4038.1 437.8 43.7
- - -
- - - ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

- 74 W 69,525 12,100 2820 ⋯

-
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

1 eV = 1.610-19 J

Binding Energy
Examples:

The Atomic Nucleus

Examples:

The Atomic Nucleus

Isotopes Isotones Isobars Isomers

12 12 12 99 m
6 C 5 B 6 C Tc
43

13 13 12 99
6 C 6 C 5 B 43Tc

The Atomic Nucleus

 39
19 K
What is the element? Potassium
What is Z? 19
What is A? 39
How many protons? 19
How many electrons? 19
How many neutrons? 20
How many nucleons? 39
How many electrons in outer shell? 1
What is the complete electron configuration? K=2
L=8
M=8
N=1

Example
 207
82 Pb
What is the element? Lead
What is Z? 82
What is A? 207
How many protons? 82
How many electrons? 82
How many neutrons? 125
How many nucleons? 207
How many electrons in outer shell? 4
What is the complete electron configuration? K=2
L=8
M = 18
N = 32
O = 18
P=4

Example
 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 d/s
Curie (Ci) = 3.7×1010 d/s

+ +
+ ++ + + ++ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + ++ + + + + ++ +
+ + + +
+ ++ + + ++ +

Parent Daughter

+
+
Alpha (α) Particle

Radioactivity
 Z (Number of Protons)
cl eons
Nu
xcess
E
Stability Curve

82
to ns
Pro
ess
c
Ex
50
rons
ut
Ne
ess
28 c
Ex
14
6

6 14 28 50 82 126
N (Number of Neutrons)

Radioactive Decay
 Modes of Decay Emits
Alpha Decay (𝛼) +
+
Beta Minus (𝛽-) -
Beta Plus (𝛽+) +
Electron Capture (EC)
Gamma (𝛾)
Isomeric Transition (IT)

Radioactive Decay
 Po-210 (138 d)
5.4 MeV

0
Pb-206

Alpha (𝛼) Decay

 P-32 (14.3 d)
1.71 MeV

𝛽-

0
S-32

Beta-Minus (𝛽-) Decay

 F-18 (110 m)
1.655 MeV
1.022 MeV
0.635 MeV

𝛽+
0
O-18

Beta-Plus (𝛽+) Decay

 A
Z X  e-  A
Z 1 Yν
201
81 Tl  e-  201
80 Hg  ν

Tl-201 (73 h)
5.4 MeV

EC

0
Hg-201

Electron Capture (EC)

 A
Z X*  X  γ
A
Z

In-111 (2.8 d)

EC
0.420 MeV 𝛾
0.247MeV
𝛾
0
Cd-111

Gamma (𝛾)
 Am
Z X  ZA X  γ
99 m
Tc  99 Tc  γ

Tc-99m (6 h)
140 keV

IT

0
Tc-99
(213,000 y)

Isomeric Transition (IT)

α 𝛽-
EC IT, 𝛾
+
𝛽

Radioactive Decay (Summary)

 100%

50%

25%

12.5%
6.25%
3.125%
...
t=0 t = t1/2 t = 2t1/2 t = 3t1/2 t = 4t1/2 t = 5t1/2 ...

Half-Life (t1/2)
 % of Original Radioactivity

Time in Half-Lives (t½)

Half-Life (t1/2)
 A 32-g sample of an isotope with a half-life of 2.0 days is
received on Monday at noon and measured to have an
activity of 24.0 mCi. What would the amount and activity be
on Friday of that week, at noon?

M T W Th F

32 g 16 g 8g

24 mCi 12 mCi 6 mCi

Example
A 32-g sample of an isotope with a half-life of 2.0 days is
received on Monday at noon and measured to have an
activity of 24.0 mCi. What would the amount and activity be
on Friday of that week, at noon?

Half-Life
 % of Original Radioactivity
% of Original Radioactivity

Time in Half-Lives (t½) Time in Half-Lives (t½)

Decay Curves
f(x)

f(x)
x x

Graphs
f(x)

f(x)
x x

Graphs
Graphs
Graphs
Graphs
Graphs
Graphs
 C (8, 6)

B (4, 3)
f(x)

A (2, 0.5)

Examples
 B (0.4, 30000)
f(x)

C (0.8, 4000)

A (0.2, 2000)

Examples
 B (40, 0.4)
C (60, 0.09)
f(x)

A (10, 0.002)

Examples
 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 d/s
Curie (Ci) = 3.7×1010 d/s

+ +
+ ++ + + ++ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + ++ + + + + ++ +
+ + + +
+ ++ + + ++ +

Parent Daughter

+
+
Alpha (α) Particle

Radioactivity
 % of Original Radioactivity
% of Original Radioactivity

Time in Half-Lives (t½) Time in Half-Lives (t½)

Decay Curves
 11
6 C 11
6 C

Activity (Ci)
Activity (Ci)

Half-life = 20 min

Half-life = 20 min

Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

Decay Curves
Decay Curves
 Half-life = 90 𝜇s
Activity (mCi)

Time (𝜇s)

Examples
 Half-life = 0.2 ms

Activity (MBq)

Time (ms)

Examples
 Half-life = 300 yrs
Activity (mCi)

Time (yrs)

Examples
 History of the Atom
Fundamental Particles
Atomic Structure (Bohr Model)
Atomic Nomenclature
Radioactivity
Half-Life
Decay Curves

Summary