Chapter 2:

Hardwar Components for

Automation and Process Control
2.1 Actuators

a) Servo motor
b) DC motor
c) Stepper motor
d) Linear motor
e) Pneumatic
cylinder
Industrial Automation Circuits
f) Solenoid actuator

Figure2.1 Various type of actuators in industrial automation

2.1 Actuators
Application
2.1.1 Electric Motors Machine tools
AC Fans

Motor Pumps
Compressors
Conveyors
Extruders

Robot Controls
Stepper
Motor CNC

3D Printers

Industrial Automation Circuits Automatic labeling

machine
Figure2.2 Internal view of an AC motor (a) and stepper motor (b) Automatic digital
camera
2.1 Actuators
2.1.1 Electric Motors

(FLC) full-load current

(FLT) full-load torque
(LRC) locked rotor current
(LRT) locked rotor torque

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure2.4 Torque-speed curves facilitate the selection of (a) an

AC or (b) stepper motor
2.1 Actuators
2.1.2 Pneumatic Actuator

Figure2.4 Torque-speed curves facilitate the selection of (a) an

AC or (b) stepper motor
Industrial Automation Circuits
2.1 Actuators
2.1.3 Relays

Table 2.1 Standardized Values for Nominal Voltage

Selection of a Relay Coil
Values of Relay Coil Nominal Voltage
AC 50Hz 24, 42, 48, 60, 110, 230, 380 V

DC 12, 24, 36, 48, 110, 230 V

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure2.5 A simplified structure of a relay

2.1 Actuators
2.1.4 Power Relays

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure2.6 Typical internal structure of power relay Figure 2.7 Typical external view of a power relay by
2.1 Actuators
2.1.5 General Purpose Relays

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.8 Typical form of a general purpose relay without (a) Figure 2.9 Two internal side views of a general purpose relay.
and with (b) a mounting base
2.1 Actuators
2.1.7 Latching Relays

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.10 Schematic diagram of latching relay: (a) relay tripped and power circuits open,
(b) relay set-latched and power circuits close
2.1 Actuators
2.1.8 Pulse Bistable Relays

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.11 Typical internal structure of a pulse bistable relay in its Figure 2.12 Time behavior of an electric contact of
two possible states: (a) a movable contact in front of type-A disk a pulse bistable relay due to a series of four
surface, and (b) after one pulse, the movable contact comes in front successive pulses
of the type-B disk surface and the electric contacts closes.
2.1 Actuators
2.1.9 Solid State Relays

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.13 Typicaly external view of a solid-state Figure 2.14 Simplified circuit of a phot-couple solid-state
relay by Siemens relay
2.1 Actuators
2.1.10 Electric Contact Classification

Table 2.2 Contact states and Current Flow with Table 2.3 Possible States of Two Simple Changeover
Regard to Relay State Two-Way Contacts

Industrial Automation Circuits

2.1 Actuators
2.1.10 Electric Contact Classification

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.15 Single-throw and double-throw electric contacts for several numbers of poles.
2.1 Actuators
2.1.11 Solenoid linear Actuators

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.16 An indicative table with technical characteristics of general purpose relays.
2.1 Actuators
2.1.11 Solenoid linear Actuators

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.17 General purpose solenoid actuators with/without return spring.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.1 Thermal Overload Relays

Industrial
Figure 2.18 Automation Circuitsof a thermal overload relay. Figure 2.19 Operation principle of the thermal overload relay
Schematic symbol
with bimetallic strip (a) during normal operation (direct heating)
(b) during normal operation (indirect
heating)
(c ) during fault case
operation
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.1 Thermal Overload Relays

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.20 Typical external view of a thermal overload protection relay .

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

 Long electrical life

 Durability to vibrations, accelerated motion, and toxic
environments
 Operation under DC or AC voltage
 Effective response in object’s high speed approaching
and high frequency excitation
 Absence of any kind of movable elements

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.21 Typical external view of a proximity sensors.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

The basic
parameters Detection or sensing distance
of the
proximity Object placement distance
switches
on the
basic of Power supply
which their
selection is Response time
performed
Industrial Automation Circuits
are the
folowing Operating frequency
Residual current
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.22 Object movement in front of the sensing area of a proximity sensor perpendicular to the sensor’s
longitudinal axis (a), and parallel to the sensor’s longitudinal axis (b)
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

Figure 2.23 Basic exterior forms of proximity sensors for various application.

Industrial Automation Circuits

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

Types of
proximity
sensors
Figure 2.24 Internal elements of an inductive proximity sensor and
object-electromagnetic field interaction.
Inductive Capacitive
proximity proximity
switches switches
Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.25 Internal elements of a capacitive proximity sensor and

object-affecting dielectric constant.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

Electric connection of
proximity sensors:
 Inductive and capacitive
proximity switches can
be connected to an AC or
DC power supply source
in a series or separately
with a load
Industrial
The so-called
Automationtwo-wire
Circuits or
three-wire connections.

Figure 2.26 Electric circuit of proximity with (a) a two-wire

connection and (b) a three-wire connection.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

 Effects of the target

size and the metallic
environment

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.27 The sensing distance (SD) of proximity switch that is
effected by the form and the dimensions of the detected object:
(a) Spherical object in front of the sensing surface
(b) The object covers the whole of the effective area
(c) The object has smaller dimension than needed.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

 Effects of the target

size and the metallic
environment

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.28 The metallic environment affects the operation of a non-
shielded inductive proximity witch:
(a) Non shielded switch presenting field scattering
(b) Safety distance for filed scattering avoidcance
(c) Shielded switch in metallic environment without scattering.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

 Magnetic proximity
switches

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.29 Typical variable reluctance magnetic proximity switch.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

 Magnetoresistive
proximity switches

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.30 Magnetic proximity switch based on magnetoresistive

detection.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.2 Proximity Switches

 Applications of
proximity switches

Figure 2.31 Typical applications of proximity switch usage.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.3 Photoelectric Switches
 Photoelectric switches, called also photocells, are solid-state sensors that are able
to detect the presence of an object at long ranges and use an output transistor to
change the state of their SPDT- type digital output.

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.32 Typical exterior view of a photoelectric sensor.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.3 Photoelectric Switches

 Through-beam photoelectric switches:

In a through-beam type of photoelectric
switch, the emitter and the receiver are
separate units, contained in different
housings and positioned opposite each
other
Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.33 Through-beam photoelectric switch.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.3 Photoelectric Switches

 Retro-reflective photoelectric switches:

In this type of photoelectric switch, the
emitter and receiver are embedded in the
same housing unit, and a reflector is used
for the reflection of the light beam

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.33 Retro-reflective photoelectric switch.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.3 Photoelectric Switches

 Diffuse-reflective photoelectric
switches: which base their operation on
the reflection of the light beam directly
on the surface of the detected object, are
also called “direct reflection”
photoelectric switches for this reason
Industrial Automation Circuits
Figure 2.33 Diffuse-reflective photoelectric switch.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.3 Photoelectric Switches
Table 2.4 The Dark-on and Light-on Operation of a Photoelectric Switch.

Industrial Automation Circuits

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.4 Limit Switches

 These types of switches have the ability to detect the “end or limit of amotion” through the
rectilinear movement and force of a plunger that is transferred to the internal mechanism and
converted to open or closed electric contacts

Industrial Automation Circuits

Figure 2.34 Typical form of a limit switch with:

(a) An interior view of switch body
(b) A switch body equipment with an actuator head.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.4 Limit Switches

(a) Push plunger

(b) Roller plunger
(c) Roller lever plunger (motion from the front or side)
(d) Roller lever plunger (motion from the back or side)
(e) Fork type
(f) Adjustable roller arm
(g) Adjustable rod
(h) Spring flexible rod

Figure 2.35 Various types of actuator head for transmitting the external force to
changeover mechanism suitably and thereby engaging the moveable Contact’s .
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

 Level switches or level sensors are devices of various kinds, from fully
electronic to purely mechanical types, with a general usage in detecting if
the level of a liquid has a definite height
 The most representative basic types of level switches or sensors are
described:
 Electronic level switches for conductive liquids
 Capacitive level switches
 Ultrasonic level sensors
 Radar-type level sensor
 Float level switches
 Optical level switch
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.36 Electronic level switch with immersed electrodes for conductive liquids
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.37 Differential behavior of an electronic level switch output during level
rising and falling
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.38 Capacitance type level switch for direct contact with bulk solids and liquids
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.39 Ultrasonic sensor for non-contact level measurement (a)

Ultrasonic switch for contact level detection (b)
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.40 Radar level sensor operation principle.

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.41 Various type of float –based level switches: Magnet-reed relay float level switch for
(a) Sidewall mounting
(b) Vertial placement
(c) Metallic plate-ball float level switch in two possible states.
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.5 Level Switches

Figure 2.42 Optical level switch non-refraction state (a)

Refraction through the liquid state (b)
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.6 Flow Switches

 In many industrial applications, it is necessary to detect if there is liquid flow inside a pipe
 The flow switches can detect a minimum of flow rate, while remaining unresponsive
below their cutoff value. Although the following description of two flow switch types will
refer to liquid flow detection, in general, flow monitors can be used in both liquids and
gases

 Paddle-type liquid flow switches

 Thermal dispersion flow switch
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.6 Flow Switches

Figure 2.43 Paddle-type liquid flow switch

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.6 Flow Switches

Figure 2.44 Calorimetric flow switch mounted in pipe (a) and thermal dispersion around
its heater probe for fluid at rest (b) and for existence of flow (c )
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.7 Temperature and Pressure Switches

 Temperature detection in an industrial process (and by extension, its monitoring and

control) is a very common problem for an engineer of automatic control systems and
automation
 There are many different types of temperature sensors, all with different characteristics,
depending upon their actual application and principle of operation
 The methods used for temperature measuring can be subdivided into contact and non-contact
temperature detection methods
 The most widely used types of temperature switches:
 Bimetal temperature switch (thermostat)
 Thermocouple
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
 Thermistor
 Infrared temperature sensor
 Semiconductor sensor
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.7 Temperature and Pressure Switches

Figure 2.45 Bimetal temperature switch:

(a) Electric contact is closed at normal temperature
(b) Electric contact opens at high temperature
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.7 Temperature and Pressure Switches

Figure 2.46 Thermocouple as a sensing element in a thermal sensor or switch

2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.7 Temperature and Pressure Switches

Figure 2.47 Resitive temperature detectors and their incorporation in a Figure 2.48 Typical form of an RTD temperature
Wheatstone bridge circuit: sensor or switch
(a) wire-round RTD element
(b) Thin-film RTD element
(c) RTD connected to a Wheatstone bridge
2.2
2.1 Sensors
Actuators
2.2.7 Temperature and Pressure Switches

Figure 2.49 Pressure sensing elements for motion Figure 2.50 Random pressure and NC switch-contact differential
production: (a) Below, (b) Diaphragm, (c ) Piston behavior of a pressure switch (a) and a non-differential piston type
pressure switch (b)
2.3
2.1 Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.1 Timer
A time delay relay or simply a “timer” is called an electronic or
an electromechanical switch, where its SPDT contact output is
activated with delay with respect either to the start or stop of the
switching operation.
In general, there are two basic types of timers from the time-
function point of view:
The ON-Delay timer.
The OFF-Delay timer.
There are three basic kinds of timers from the operation
principle point of view:
The electronic timer
Motorized timer
Pneumatic timer
Figure 2.51 Printed circuit board of an electronic switch
timer.
2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.1 Timer

Figure 2.52 Connection diagram and ON/OFF-relay response of an electronic timer

2.3
2.1 Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.1 Timer

Figure 2.53 Pneumatic timer simplified internal view.

2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.1 Timer

Figure 2.54 Motorized electromechanical timers from Pansonic Corporation and A.G.
Engineering Enterprise
2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.2 Cam Timers (Motorized drum switches)

 Cam timers, or motorized drum switches, are

electromechanical sequencers used in
industrial applications with repetitive
processes of a finite number of steps.
 They are considered an old-fashioned type of
timer, due to the current PLCs where such
timers can be easily programmed,but for
small automation applications they are an
appropriate solution, even today

Figure 2.55 Electromechanical switch cam timer-programmer

2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.2 Cam Timers (Motorized drum switches)

Figure 2.57 Timing bar chart of a five-cam timer

Figure 2.56 Detail of cam timer programmer component

2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.3 Three-Phase Monitoring Relays

 A typical utilization is for the

measurement of the current values of
the electrical quantities and their
deviations from the nominal values,
where the monitoring relay is able to
activate their output(s) when these
deviations exceed a predefined limit

Figure 2.58 Connection diagram of a three-phase monitoring

relay (a), and single-phase monitoring relay from ABB Ltd.
2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.4 Reed Relays

Figure 2.59 A simple no-cased form of a reed switch (a), NO status of

the reed switch contact (b), and the permanent magnet that closed the
contact (c )
2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.5 Counter and Hour Meters

 In many industrial applications, it is necessary

to count pulse-type events such as strokes,
rotations, “product passing”, ON-OFF changes
of devices, etc.

 To make a process more effective and safe, hour

meters are used to determine how long a
machine has been running in order to schedule
machine maintenance or to start another process
at a predetermined point in time
Figure 2.60 Typical view of an electromechanical counter from
General Industrial Controls Private Limited (GIC) (a), and hour meter
fom Camso Electric Co. Ltd.
2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.6 Encoders

Figure 2.61 Binary encoded output for a full rotation of an encoder.

2.2
2.3
2.1 Sensors
Timer, Drum Switches and Special Components
Actuators
2.3.6 Encoders

Figure 2.62 Pule train of a two-channel encoder and zero index for resulting coding data